A multicultural investigation of masculinity ideology and alexithymia.

Abstract

The aims of this study were to investigate the social constructionist proposition that masculinity varies according to social context and the relationship, in men, between masculinity ideology and alexithymia. Women tended to endorse a less traditional view of masculinity than did men, and European Americans tended to endorse a less traditional view of masculinity than did African Americans, with Hispanics from the Caribbean and the United States in the middle. A relationship between masculinity ideology and alexithymia in men was established, and, even after controlling for demographic variables, masculinity ideology accounted for unique variance in alexithymia in men.Gender roles have an enormous influence on how individuals function both intra-and interpersonally (Jakupcak, Lisak, & Roemer, 2002;Silverstein, Auerbach, & Levant, 2002). Pleck (1981) postulated that the gender role identity paradigm, which dominated research on gender from 1930 to 1980, does not adequately account for the formation of gender roles. According to the gender role identity paradigm, gender roles develop as a result of an inner psychological need to have a sex-appropriate gender role identity, and optimal personality development depends on the construction of sex-appropriate gender role identity (Pleck, 1981). In contrast to the gender role identity paradigm, the new psychology of men relies on the gender role strain paradigm, a social constructionist perspective, to account for the formation of gender roles. In this view, prevailing gender ideologies, which vary according to psychological, historical, social, and political contexts, serve to influence parents, teachers, and peers, who, in turn, socialize children according to the prevailing gender role ideologies.The gender role strain paradigm recognizes biological differences between men and women but argues that concepts of "masculinity" and "femininity" are not constructed by biology (Levant, 1996b;Levant & Pollack, 1995). Rather, gender roles are formed to serve particular purposes within any given society; namely, gender roles maintain the system of power relations between males and females in a social group. Traditional gender role socialization serves to uphold patriarchal codes by requiring that males adopt dominant and aggressive behaviors and function in the public sphere, while requiring that females adopt adaptive and nurturing behaviors and function in the private sphere of the family (Levant, 1996b).

Further examination of the factor structure of the Male Role Norms Inventory-Short Form (MRNI-SF): Measurement considerations for women, men of color, and gay men.

“…Black men (Levant, Majors, & Kelley, 1998) and Black and Latino men (Levant et al, 2003). A consistent finding among these studies is that men and racial-ethnic minorities tend to report higher levels of TMI compared to women and individuals from the racial-ethnic majority (c.f., Levant & Richmond, 2016).…”

Containing and Resisting Masculinity: Narratives of Renegotiation Among Resilient Male Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse.

“…Black men often express their masculinity in a "cool pose," which emphasizes pride, strength, and control (Majors & Billson, 1992, p. 4). Latino and African American cultures emphasize the most traditional views of masculinity (Levant et al, 2003), putting more pressure on men from these groups to conform. Having received the brunt of aggression and power in the role of victim, one trajectory taken by a minority but significant number of abused men is to react by becoming hypermasculine; in other words, hyperaggressive, overcontrolled, unemotional, action oriented, and abusive to others (Gartner, 1999;Lisak, 1995).…”

The Experiences of Gay, Military Men and the Impact on One's Sense of Masculinity

“…Findings confirmed the hypothesis that female participants were less likely than male participants to endorse a culturally traditional sense of masculinity. Levant et al (2003) also found that African American women were more likely to identify with and endorse a more traditional sense of masculinity, whereas European American women were least likely, with Hispanic women in the middle. Additionally, both African American and Hispanic men were more likely than European American men to endorse more traditional ideals of masculinity.…”

“…Additionally, both African American and Hispanic men were more likely than European American men to endorse more traditional ideals of masculinity. Levant et al (2003) claimed that there was little variability between cultures in the perception of masculinity ideologies, with alexithymia (inability or difficulty to identify one's emotions) consistently being paired with a more "traditional" sense of masculinity. This suggests that in fitting with masculine norms a man may be encouraged to disconnect from his emotions.…”

“…Condemnation may result in behaving outside these gendered boundaries in cultures with these rigid gender roles (Good et al, 1995;O'Neil, 1981a;Pleck, 1976). Levant et al (2003) examined how the idea of masculinity varies across cultures.…”