A Multi‐Scale Analysis of Single‐Family Residential Water Use in the Phoenix Metropolitan Area

Abstract

Studies that evaluate determinants of residential water demand typically use data from a single spatial scale. Although household‐scale data are preferred, especially when econometric models are used, researchers may be limited to aggregate data. There is little, if any, empirical analysis to assess whether spatial scale may lead to ecological fallacy problems in residential water use research. Using linear mixed‐effects models, we compare the results for the relationship of single‐family water use with its determinants using data from the household and census tract scales in the city of Phoenix. Model results between the household and census tract scale are similar suggesting the ecological fallacy may not be significant. Common significant determinants on these two spatial scales include household size, household income, house age, pool size, irrigable lot size, precipitation, and temperature. We also use city/town scale data from the Phoenix metropolitan area to parameterize the linear mixed‐effects model. The difference in the parameter estimates of those common variables compared to the first two scales indicates there is spatial heterogeneity in the relationship between single‐family water use and its determinants among cities and towns. The negative relationship between single‐family house density and residential water use suggests that residential water consumption could be reduced through coordination of land use planning and water demand management.

The Hydro-Economic Interdependency of Cities: Virtual Water Connections of the Phoenix, Arizona Metropolitan Area

“…The major physical water resources for the PMA are the Colorado River via the Central Arizona Project (CAP); the Salt and Verde rivers, via the Salt River Project (SRP); and substantial, but nonrenewable groundwater underlying the PMA. The core PMA municipalities have greater access to surface water (the CAP and SRP systems), while smaller municipalities on the outskirts of the PMA are more dependent on groundwater [32], although residential water consumption trends [33] are postively correlated with income [34][35][36]. Scarce water resources coupled with precipitous growth has placed strains on the water supply system and created competition between PMA municipalities and economic sectors (industrial/commercial, residential, utilities, etc.)…”

Modeling the determinants of large-scale building water use: Implications for data-driven urban sustainability policy

“…A substantial proportion of the literature has been focused on understanding the socioeconomic factors and physical building characteristics that impact single-family residential water use (Chang, Parandvash, & Shandas, 2010;House-Peters, Pratty, & Chang, 2010;Ouyang, Wentz, Ruddell, & Harlan, 2013;Polebitski & Palmer, 2009;Wentz & Gober, 2007). Yet, despite building typology being shown to impact water usage in several studies, there is a dearth of research examining the socioeconomic factors and physical building characteristics that impact water usage in multi-family residential buildings in dense urban areas like New York City (Domene & Saurí, 2006;Fox, McIntosh, & Jeffrey, 2009;Wentz et al, 2014;Zhang & Brown, 2005).…”

Analysis of Water Tariff Reform on Water Consumption in Different Housing Typologies in Calvià (Mallorca)

“…The aggregate water consumption data in areal units may lead to an ecological fallacy problem when the statistical analysis and conclusions based on aggregate data are not applicable on an individual scale [9,10]. Several studies have shown that domestic water consumption varies significantly according to the characteristics of the properties, and also due to different water usage behaviours found in individual households [6,9,11,12].…”

“…Several studies have shown that domestic water consumption varies significantly according to the characteristics of the properties, and also due to different water usage behaviours found in individual households [6,9,11,12]. This highlights the importance of an analysis of water consumption at the level of individual households.…”