A Latent Class Analysis of Gender Attitudes and Their Associations with Intimate Partner Violence and Mental Health in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Abstract

Gender role attitudes, views held by individuals regarding the roles men and women should play in society, are a powerful social determinant of health. However, work remains in elucidating the associations between gender attitudes and intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration or victimization and mental health problems. We used latent class analysis to classify patterns of responses on survey items on gender attitudes by male and female adults in households that participated in an economic empowerment intervention and evaluation in rural villages in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Attitudes about IPV and gender equality were two subdomains to emerge from analysis and a 3-class model solution was found to best fit response patterns. Results indicated that, as compared to the least gender equitable class, individuals in the moderately gender equitable and fully gender equitable classes had lower odds of having experienced or perpetrated psychological abuse. Individuals within the moderately gender equitable class were at lower odds of having experienced or perpetrated physical or sexual violence. Further, individuals in the moderately gender equitable and fully gender equitable classes had significantly lower mean scores on symptoms associated with PTSD than individuals in the least gender equitable class. Future research should explore the relationships between gender attitudes, partner violence and mental health to build resilient families.

Intimate Partner Violence and Mental Health: Deepening Our Understanding of Associations, Pathways, and Prevention in Low- and Middle-Income Countries

“…This Special Issue also widens the lens on the ways in which we think about the impacts of IPV on wellbeing. The studies included employ traditional measures of depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, and suicide ideation [ 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ], but also examine broader psychosocial impacts such as alcohol and drug use, capacity to cope, and resilience [ 18 , 27 , 29 , 30 , 31 ].…”

Mental health outcomes, literacy and service provision in low- and middle-income settings: a systematic review of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

“…Most studies assessed depression ( n = 19), anxiety (n = 15), and PTSD ( n = 14) symptoms of their participants. For anxiety and depression, the Hopkins Symptoms Checklist (HSCL-25) was the most common measure 24 , 31 . One recent study used both Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) and General Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7) to assess the prevalence of depression and anxiety during the pandemic COVID-19 32 .…”

Development and Testing of a Community-Based Intervention to Address Intimate Partner Violence among Rohingya and Syrian Refugees: A Social Norms-Based Mental Health-Integrated Approach

“…Both interventions were effective in various ways, and across contexts, while also revealing gender and contextual differences that raise considerations for future research. Results suggest that these intervention approaches are relevant both for women (most commonly victims of IPV) and men (most commonly perpetrators) and therefore address a documented need for intervention approaches utilizing social norms, integrating mental health, and targeting both victims and perpetrators [ 27 , 89 , 90 , 91 ].…”

“…Rigid gender roles and other social norms emphasizing what is considered acceptable behavior for men and women can increase risk of IPV, exacerbate victim blame, and undermine help-seeking [ 18 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ]. Research indicates that certain norms, such as beliefs that a man has the right or responsibility to ‘discipline’ his partner, that a man’s abusive behavior is indicative of love, and that it is a woman’s duty to tolerate abuse, have been associated with increased risk of IPV and decreased likelihood of help-seeking [ 25 , 32 , 33 , 34 ].…”

“…Rigid gender roles seem to underpin many of these social norms, including patriarchal expectations that men should be controlling and women submissive [ 10 , 11 , 35 , 36 , 37 ]. Increasingly, perspectives from practitioners and researchers indicate that IPV interventions should focus on addressing social norms contributing to acceptability of IPV, including rigid gender roles and stigma around help-seeking [ 8 , 25 , 27 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 ]. Researchers have also emphasized that additional work is needed to address gaps in understanding links between gender attitudes, partner violence and mental health, and to test related interventions [ 27 ].…”