A historical perspective on deep-sea mining for manganese nodules, 1965–2019

Sparenberg, Ole

doi:10.1016/j.exis.2019.04.001

Cited by 53 publications

(49 citation statements)

References 33 publications

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“…At this time, those expressing the greatest interest in deep-seabed mining, both actively and passively (and not necessarily always to propel the industry forward) include the following groups: (1) unfavourable child labour/slavery practices 89 . These could all be improved with focused effort, but presently add incentive to look to the ocean as an alternative source of minerals 7,19 .…”

Section: Box 3 | Stakeholders For Deep-seabed Miningmentioning

confidence: 99%

Challenges to the sustainability of deep-seabed mining

2020

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he deep-sea floor (below 200 m) is presently, along with Antarctica, the only area on Earth where mineral resources are not currently extracted commercially 1. However, the twenty-first century has seen rising concerns over the depletion of the most readily available and highest-grade ores of selected minerals on land, as well as increasing vulnerabilities to political control over resource access 2-4. Demand for some minerals is also projected to increase, particularly from electrification of the transport sector and renewable energy generation 5-8. A recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report indicates that 70-85% of all electricity would need to come from renewable sources by 2050 to limit global warming to 1.5 °C 9. These factors, combined with the development of a governance structure for international mineral resources established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and its 1994 Implementing Agreement, have led to renewed interest in deep-seabed mining 4,10. Many metals occur together at economically interesting concentrations in the deep ocean. These include copper, cobalt, nickel, zinc, silver and gold, as well as lithium and rare-earth elements (Table 1). The metals are found in different ore types in different settings (Fig.

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Section: Box 3 | Stakeholders For Deep-seabed Miningmentioning

confidence: 99%

Challenges to the sustainability of deep-seabed mining

2020

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“…A recent revival of commercial interest in polymetallic nodules in the CCZ ( Figure 2) has been driven by the improvement of metal prices in the 2000s, the expected increased demands for battery metals, the proposed release of exploitation regulations, and improvements in subsea technology (e.g., Sparenberg [14]). Any entity seeking or providing project financing will very likely need estimates of the mineral resources and mineral/ore reserves to be compiled and reported to modern international standards.…”

Section: Mineral Developersmentioning

confidence: 99%

Aspects of Estimation and Reporting of Mineral Resources of Seabed Polymetallic Nodules: A Contemporaneous Case Study

Parianos¹,

Lipton²,

Nimmo³

2021

Minerals

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Exploration of seabed polymetallic nodules identifies the Clarion Clipperton Zone and the Indian Ocean Nodule Field to be of economic interest. Mineral resource estimation is important to the owner of the resource (all of mankind; and managed by the International Seabed Authority; ISA) and to developers (commercial and government groups holding contracts with the ISA). The Committee for Mineral Reserves International Reporting Standards was developed for the land-based minerals industry and adapted in 2015 for ISA-managed nodules. Nodules can be sampled in a meaningful manner using mechanical devices, albeit with minor issues of bias. Grade and moisture content are measured using the established methodology for land-based minerals. Tonnage of resource is determined via the abundance of nodules in kilograms per square metre of seabed. This can be estimated from physical samples and, in some cases, from photographs. Contemporary resource reporting for nodules classify the level of confidence in the estimate, by considering deposit geology, sample geostatistics, etc. The reporting of estimates also addresses reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction, including factors such as mining technology, the marine environment, metallurgical processing, and metals markets. Other requirements are qualified persons responsible for estimation and reporting, site inspection, and sample chain of custody.

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“…The economic potential of polymetallic nodules (also called ferromanganese nodules) has attracted attention for more than half a century [1], but actual commercial mining has yet to take place. While the technical issues hampering their exploitation have been partially resolved over time, environmental issues have emerged [2][3][4]. The assessment of environmental risks is now a prerequisite for a potential polymetallic nodule mining practice.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Characterization of Fines Produced by Degradation of Polymetallic Nodules from the Clarion–Clipperton Zone

et al. 2021

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The discharge of fluid–particle mixture tailings can cause serious disturbance to the marine environment in deep-sea mining of polymetallic nodules. Unrecovered nodule fines are one of the key components of the tailings, but little information has been gained on their properties. Here, we report major, trace, and rare earth element compositions of <63 μm particles produced by the experimental degradation of two types of polymetallic nodules from the Clarion–Clipperton Zone. Compared to the bulk nodules, the fines produced are enriched in Al, K, and Fe and depleted in Mn, Co, Ni, As, Mo, and Cd. The deviation from the bulk composition of original nodules is particularly pronounced in the finer fraction of particles. With X-ray diffraction patterns showing a general increase in silicate and aluminosilicates in the fines, the observed trends indicate a significant contribution of sediment particles released from the pores and cracks of nodules. Not only the amount but also the composition of nodule fines is expected to significantly differ depending on the minimum recovery size of particles at the mining vessel.

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A historical perspective on deep-sea mining for manganese nodules, 1965–2019

Cited by 53 publications

References 33 publications

Challenges to the sustainability of deep-seabed mining

Challenges to the sustainability of deep-seabed mining

Aspects of Estimation and Reporting of Mineral Resources of Seabed Polymetallic Nodules: A Contemporaneous Case Study

Characterization of Fines Produced by Degradation of Polymetallic Nodules from the Clarion–Clipperton Zone

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