A Global Review of Animal–Visitor Interactions in Modern Zoos and Aquariums and Their Implications for Wild Animal Welfare

Abstract

We provide an initial insight into the occurrence and characteristics of animal-visitor interactions (AVIs) involving captive wild animals within zoos and aquaria. Using information provided online via official public websites of modern zoos and aquaria, we found that AVIs were provided by the majority of facilities. Our study revealed that a variety of AVI types were being offered. Globally, petting captive wild animals was the most prevalent AVI type advertised (n = 1241 observations, 43% (534) of facilities) and Mammalia was the most advertised taxonomic class (n = 5142; 53% (2739)). We found certain AVI types that were more commonly offered than predicted. These were opportunities to: (1) Hand feed captive wild animals in Asia, North America and Oceania; (2) ride wild animals in Europe and North America; (3) walk with or swim through wild animal enclosures in Asia; and (4) walk with wild animals in Asia and Europe. Given the global prevalence of AVIs in modern zoos and aquaria, and an apparent lack of animal welfare focused research, we provide recommendations to help effectively balance and manage captive wild animal welfare with other primary interconnected goals.

Widespread Behavioral Responses by Mammals and Fish to Zoo Visitors Highlight Differences between Individual Animals

“…Our work contributes new species to the body of literature on the zoo visitor effect: 10 of the 16 species studied were not represented in a recent review of the literature on zoo visitor impacts on animal behavior [ 21 ]. Four of these newly studied species were fish, on which there have never been published studies documenting their responses to zoo visitors [ 21 ], even though fish (e.g., Chondrichthyes) are often part of animal–visitor interactive exhibits [ 60 ]. Findings from research on how visitors affect zoo animals can be integrated into plans for exhibit designs, and hopefully create experiences that are positive for both the visitor and the zoo animal [ 61 ].…”

Exotic animal cafes are increasingly home to threatened biodiversity

“…It could also be argued that the cafe experience could foster biodiversity education and conservation awareness, similar to the influence associated with humanwildlife experiences in zoos and aquaria (D'Cruze et al, 2019;Fernandez, Tamborski, Pickens, & Timberlake, 2009) (Figure 1). However, results are inconclusive regarding the negative, neutral, or positive impact of human-wildlife interaction in such facilities and therefore further research is required (D'Cruze et al, 2019).…”

“…It could also be argued that the cafe experience could foster biodiversity education and conservation awareness, similar to the influence associated with humanwildlife experiences in zoos and aquaria (D'Cruze et al, 2019;Fernandez, Tamborski, Pickens, & Timberlake, 2009) (Figure 1). However, results are inconclusive regarding the negative, neutral, or positive impact of human-wildlife interaction in such facilities and therefore further research is required (D'Cruze et al, 2019). Additional potential consequences of the cafes include associated issues of animal welfare (Baker et al, 2013;D'Cruze et al, 2019), the establishment of non-native species due to pet releases or escapes (Lockwood et al, 2019;Measey et al, 2019), or the risk of zoonotic disease resulting from increased contact between humans and wild animals (Karesh, Cook, Gilbert, & Newcomb, 2007) (Figure 1).…”

Documenting Aggression, Dominance and the Impacts of Visitor Interaction on Galápagos Tortoises (Chelonoidis nigra) in a Zoo Setting

“…At present, most data concerning human-animal interaction in zoos are derived from studies of mammals, which suggest that people may act as enrichment, a source of stress, or have neutral impact [2]. Despite 21% of WAZA zoos allowing the public to touch live reptiles [3], few if any data exist on how these interactions affect animal welfare [3][4][5]. Understanding the impacts that visitors may have on captive animals is vital in enabling zoos to engage and educate visitors, whilst promoting positive animal welfare [6,7].…”