A Family Process Model of Economic Hardship and Adjustment of Early Adolescent Boys

Abstract

We propose a family process model that links economic stress in family life to prosocial and problematic adolescent adjustment. Employing a sample of 205 seventh-grade boys aged 12 to 14 years (M = 12.7) and living in intact families in the rural Midwest, the theoretical constructs in the model were measured using both trained observer and family member reports. In general, results were consistent with the proposed model. Objective economic conditions such as per capita income and unstable work were related to parents' emotional status and behaviors through their perceptions of increased economic pressures such as the inability to pay monthly bills. These pressures were associated with depression and demoralization for both parents, which was related to marital conflict and disruptions in skillful parenting. Disrupted parenting mediated the relations between the earlier steps in the stress process and adolescent adjustment. The emotions and behaviors of both mothers and fathers were almost equally affected by financial difficulties, and disruptions in each parent's child-rearing behaviors had adverse consequences for adolescent development.

A Risk‐Amplification Model of Victimization and Depressive Symptoms Among Runaway and Homeless Adolescents

“…Children's subsequent drift into nonconventional peer associations serves to further reinforce coercive interaction styles. Conger et al, (1992) replicated Patterson's findings with adolescent boys and extended the model for adolescent girls (Conger et al, 1993). Mason, Cauce, Gonzales, Hiraga, Grove (1998) have tested aspects of this model with African American families with essentially the same results.…”

Parenting and child externalizing behaviors: Are the associations specific or diffuse?

“…High levels of hostility have been associated with child externalizing behaviors in a number of studies (e.g., Conger, Conger, Elder, Lorenz, Simons, & Whitbeck, 1992;Conger, Conger, Elder, Lorenz, Simons, & Whitbeck, 1993;Conger, Ge, Elder, Lorenz, & Simons, 1994;O'Leary, Slep, & Reid, 1999;Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992). For example, Patterson (1982) and colleagues (e.g., Patterson, Reid, & Dishion, 1992;Snyder & Patterson, 1995) have studied extensively the coercive processes that operate through hostility and lead to externalizing problems.…”

“…Finally, we considered only those studies examining children in the age range of two to eighteen, as our child outcomes of interest (externalizing and internalizing problems) cannot be appropriately diagnosed or reliably assessed in children younger than two, and we defined children as individuals younger than 18 years of age. From the original 121 studies identified, 17 met the above-described inclusion criteria (i.e., Brody, Kim, Murray, & Brown, 2004;Chi & Hinshaw, 2002;Conger, Patterson, & Ge, 1995;Conger et al, 1992;Conger et al, 1993;DeGarmo, Patterson, & Forgatch, 2004;Dumas & Serketich, 1994;Fendrich, Warner, & Weissman, 1990;Frye & Garber, 2005;Hammen et al, 2004;Herwig, Wirtz, & Bengel, 2004;Jaser et al, 2005;Kim & Brody, 2005;Low & Stocker, 2005;Marchand & Hock, 1998;Nelson, Hammen, Brennan, & Ullman, 2003;Panaccione & Wahler, 1986).…”

Telephone counseling to implement best parenting practices to prevent adolescent problem behaviors

“…The capability to implement known best practice is often disrupted by parental stressors such as separation or divorce, job loss [19], increased work hours [8], or even by a generalized growing disaffection (depression) and longterm disadvantage [20]. Culture and the media convey consistent negative images of parentteen relationships that undermine parent morale and self-efficacy [10].…”