“…OPRs are constructed to have high average depths of 0.25–0.30 m which equates to a low surface-to-volume ( S / V ) ratio of about 5.0–10.0 m –1 . This greatly reduces sunlight exposure and the photosynthetic growth of the algae culture to a maximum capacity of 0.5–1.0 kg biomass /m 3 of cultivation after 4–6 weeks. , Naturally, poor algae biomass concentrations result in poor economic profitability due to the energy necessary for drying the wet biomass. ,, While closed reactors, such as tubular or flat panel/plate photobioreactors (PBR) have higher S / V ratios (∼50–150) and better biomass productivities (e.g., 6–12 g/L), , their capital costs are 100 times greater than ORPs . As well, the scale of these PBRs are usually limited to 100 m 2 , or 0.1–10 m 3 , due to their low light distribution efficiencies of 10–20% and their large gas exchange requirements. , Naturally, this incurs large utility costs due to high energy consumptions of 76–3400 W/m 3 for tubular PBRs to 50–334 W/m 3 for flat panels and plates. ,− To transcend the limitations affecting the development of large-scale algae-based bioplastic manufacture, implementation of improved PBRs such as the thin layer cascade (TLC), and the sourcing of materials (e.g., wastewater to CO 2 ) to electricity and heating from bioenergy plants, are 2 solutions being pursued.…”