A curious trajectory of interrace relations: the transformation of cosmopolitan Malay port polities into the multiethnic divisions of modern Malaysia

Ethnic politics and ambivalent imaginaries of the future at the Melaka Straits

“…The former has left its imprint through the influence of three different foreign powers, Portugal (1511−1641), the Netherlands (1641−1795), and Great Britain (1795−1957) which controlled the territory of present Malaysia in succession. While the identities of different groups such as the Peranakan (Straits‐born) Chinese and the Kristang (community of mixed Portuguese and Malay descent) were characterized by fluidity and hybridity in the pre‐colonial period, this changed fundamentally during the British colonial era when ethnic segregation was used as an instrument of colonial control (Petrů, 2018). During the colonial period, ethnic groups were ‘physically and socially segregated’ (Hirschman, 1986: 353), a circumstance related to the recruitment of large numbers of Indian and Chinese workers to boost the economy.…”

“…Many Malays were employed in the British colonial administration (Petrů, 2018: 66−70). Some Malay leaders who had enjoyed British education and shared British values were even seen as arrows into the future.…”

The influence of education, economy and religion domains in enhancing ethnic unity among Malaysian youths

“…The Malay students attend the national school, whereas the Chinese and Indians go to their Chinese school and Indian school, respectively. Thus, the students are denied the opportunity to know and mingle with each other at their tender age (Haque, 2003; Petru, 2018).…”

Contemporary Hakka Language Maintenance in Multilingual Penang, Malaysia

“…The ethnic groups are Malays, Indigenous people, and natives of Sabah and Sarawak (69.3%), Chinese (22.8%), and Indians (6.9%), while the remaining 1% is formed by other ethnic groups. Resulting from its historical process, favouritism for linguistic plurality has been created and resulted in ethnic mixing and cultural hybridisation in Malaysia (Petrů, 2017). The prioritising of Malays and other Indigenous people in the country's policy has been harmful influence in interethnic relations and a hindrance for social and economic progress.…”