A cross-sectional study of smoking and depression among US adults: NHANES (2005–2018)

Abstract

BackgroundThe relationship between smoking and depression remains controversial. This study aimed to investigate the association between smoking and depression from three aspects: smoking status, smoking volume, and smoking cessation.MethodsData from adults aged ≥20 who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) between 2005 and 2018 were collected. The study gathered information about the participants' smoking status (never smokers, previous smokers, occasional smokers, daily smokers), smoking quantity per day, and smoking cessation. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), with a score ≥10 indicating the presence of clinically relevant symptoms. Multivariable logistic regression was conducted to evaluate the association of smoking status, daily smoking volume, and smoking cessation duration with depression.ResultsPrevious smokers [odds ratio (OR) = 1.25, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.05–1.48] and occasional smokers (OR = 1.84, 95% CI: 1.39–2.45) were associated with a higher risk of depression compared with never smokers. Daily smokers had the highest risk of depression (OR = 2.37, 95% CI: 2.05–2.75). In addition, a tendency toward a positive correlation was observed between daily smoking volume and depression (OR = 1.65, 95% CI: 1.24–2.19) (P for trend < 0.05). Furthermore, the longer the smoking cessation duration, the lower the risk of depression (OR = 0.55, 95% CI: 0.39–0.79) (P for trend < 0.05).ConclusionsSmoking is a behavior that increases the risk of depression. The higher the smoking frequency and smoking volume, the higher the risk of depression, whereas smoking cessation is associated with decreased risk of depression, and the longer the smoking cessation duration, the lower the risk of depression.

The longitudinal analysis for the association between smoking and the risk of depressive symptoms

“…In a Mendelian randomization study for 462,690 participants from the UK Biobank, smoking was a significant risk factor for depression (OR: 1.99 [1.71–2.32) across both lifetime smoking and smoking initiation [ 24 ]. A recent cross-sectional study demonstrated that depression was more significantly associated with previous smokers (OR: 1.25 [1.05–1.48]) and occasional smokers (OR: 1.84 [1.39–2.45]), compared with never smokers [ 9 ]. In addition, longitudinal analyses showed that daily smoking increased the risk for subsequent development of depression among adolescents [ 25 , 26 ].…”

“…A systematic review for 148 studies indicated that exposure to smoking at baseline led to the increased incidence of later depression [ 8 ]. Wu et al demonstrated that smoking amount was positively associated with the risk of depression in a cross-sectional study [ 9 ]. In a systematic review, long-term smoking cessation over 10 years was negatively associated with the risk of depression [ 10 ].…”

Exploring the Relationship Between Smoking and Poor Sleep Quality: A Cross-Sectional Study Using NHANES

“…Covariables were chosen based on previous research (Wu et al, 2023; You et al, 2023). Demographic characteristics were extracted from the demographic questionnaire, including age, gender, race/ethnicity, marital status, family poverty income ratio, and education level.…”

“…The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), a nationally representative survey conducted in the United States, collects comprehensive data on various health-related factors, including smoking habits and sleep parameters (Wu et al, 2023). By leveraging NHANES data from 2007-2020 March, we can explore the potential link between smoking and poor sleep quality while accounting for potential confounders such as age, gender, race/ethnicity, education level, marital status, and body mass index (BMI) (You et al, 2023).…”

Prevalence of sarcopenia and depressive symptoms among older adults: a scoping review

“…According to a meta‐analysis by Zenebe et al, 25 a high global prevalence of depressive symptoms was found among the older population ranging from 7.7% to 81.1%. Multiple factors are associated with geriatric depressive symptoms, such as being female, 26 older age, 27 being single or divorced, 28 lower educational attainment, unemployment, low income, 29 low self‐esteem, 30 loneliness or living alone, 31 social deprivation, 32 presence of chronic illness or poor health status, 33 lack of health insurance, 34 smoking habit, 35 cognitive impairment and a history of depressive symptom 25 . Despite geriatric depressive symptoms being a major problem, they are often undiagnosed, underdiagnosed, undertreated or diagnosed late 36 .…”