A Contemporary Review of Hate Crime Legislation in the United States

Bills, Matthew A.; Vaughn, Michael S.

doi:10.1177/08874034221112847

Cited by 5 publications

(3 citation statements)

References 42 publications

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“…Within this study, we focus on two broad types of violent victimization -hate crimes and gender-based violence, inclusive of stalking, sexual violence, and IPV. Persons with disabilities experience hate crimes and are a protected class in 29 states' hate crime statutes (Bills & Vaughn, 2022) albeit not in West Virginia. While very few incidents are classified as anti-disability in nature (less than 2%, FBI, 2022), Macdonald and colleagues' (2023) analysis of 33 case studies found that one's disability was central for many marginalized victims of hate crime and that disability may be overlooked when classifying these crimes.…”

Section: Victimization and Disabilitymentioning

confidence: 99%

People With Disabilities and Violent Victimization in the Heartland: Results from the First Phase of the West Virginia Community Quality of Life Survey

Hayes,

DeKeseredy,

Nolan

2024

IJRC

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Studies of violent victimization in rural and remote parts of the U.S. are in short supply and the bulk of those done so far focus mainly on man-to-woman violence in intimate relationships among people without disabilities. There is, indeed, a major need to broaden the focus of rural victimological research to include violence against people with disabilities, which is the main objective of this article. Relying on original exploratory data generated by the first phase of the West Virginia Community Quality of Life Survey (WVCQLS), population estimates of four types of violent victimization are presented: stalking, sexual assault, intimate partner violence, and hate and bias assaults. The results show that a large number of rural West Virginia residents with disabilities experience these forms of victimization. Directions for further empirical and theoretical work are discussed.

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Section: Victimization and Disabilitymentioning

confidence: 99%

People With Disabilities and Violent Victimization in the Heartland: Results from the First Phase of the West Virginia Community Quality of Life Survey

Hayes,

DeKeseredy,

Nolan

2024

IJRC

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“…Hate crimes are incidents that are committed in whole or in part due to a victim’s actual or perceived membership in a protected class (FBI, n.d.). There is variability across states in what protected classes are included in the respective statute, but most states provide protections based on animus toward the victim’s race, ethnicity, or religion ( N = 47; Bills & Vaughn, 2022). There is much more variability among states in offering protections for crimes that are anti-gender ( N = 29)/gender identity ( N = 12), anti-sexual orientation ( N = 33), or anti-disability ( N = 29; Bills & Vaughn, 2022).…”

Section: Hate Crimementioning

confidence: 99%

Assessment of Functional and Dysfunctional Perceived Threat of Hate Crimes Among Persons With and Without Disability

Pyo,

Hayes

2023

J Interpers Violence

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This study examined the relationship between disability status and perceived threat of hate crimes. Building on existing conceptual frameworks, first we differentiated between dysfunctional perceived threat that damages quality of life and functional perceived threat that has the capacity to be motivational and precautionary. We then examined how disability status predicts individuals’ threat memberships across dysfunctional and functional perceived threats of hate crimes. Results—based on a survey of 1,824 adults recruited from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk—indicate that persons with a disability are more likely than those without a disability to exhibit dysfunctional perceived threat (vs. functional or no perceived threat) of hate crime across different bias motivations. This relationship was evident even when accounting for those most at risk for each type of hate crime (e.g., persons of color for anti-race/ethnicity hate crime). Further, persons with cognitive and physical disabilities were associated with higher odds of dysfunctional perceived threat of all types of hate crimes when compared to persons without a disability. Overall, the present study highlights that persons with a disability may experience exacerbated consequences of subjective threat of hate crimes. Findings also suggest the importance of an intersectional approach to hate crime by considering how disability may intersect with other forms of oppression in relation to perceived threat of hate crime. Implications and future directions, especially as they relate to measurement, are discussed.

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“…There is, however, considerable variation between individual states regarding which groups receive protection under hate crime laws. Some states recognize police and firefighters as protected classes, several recognize homelessness or political affiliation, whereas 17 states do not yet recognize sexual orientation, and 38 do not recognize gender identity as protected classes ( Bills & Vaughn, 2023 ).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Prototypes of Hate and Expectations of the Model Victim

Erentzen,

Schuller

2024

J Interpers Violence

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This research explored the content of hate crime prototypes in a North American context, with particular attention to how such prototypes might influence blame attributions. In Study 1a, participants were recruited from a blended sample of universities ( n = 110) and community members ( n = 102) and asked to report their thoughts about typical hate crime offenses, victims, and offenders. These open-ended responses were coded, and common themes were identified. In Study 1b, a new group of participants ( n = 290) were presented with these themes and asked to rate each for their characteristics of hate crimes. Studies 1a and 1b confirmed the presence of a clear prototype of hate crimes, such that (a) perpetrators were believed to be lower status White men with clear expressions of bias, (b) hate crime offenses were believed to be acts of interpersonal violence accompanied by slurs or verbal abuse, and (c) hate crime victims were thought to be members of a marginalized group who remain passive during the offense. Study 2 explored the consequences of victim prototypes on assessments of victim blame. Participants ( n = 296) were recruited from York University and presented with a case vignette that varied the prototypicality of a victim of hate, depicting him as either Black or White and either passive, verbally responsive, or physically confrontational in the context of an assault. Participants showed greatest sympathy for the Black victim who passively ignored verbal harassment but increasingly assigned blame when the Black victim spoke or reacted physically. When the victim was White, participants showed little variation in their assessment of blame as a function of the victim’s behavior. These results suggest that Black victims are subjected to greater behavioral scrutiny than White victims and that sympathy for victims of hate may be contingent on their passivity in the face of harassment.

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A Contemporary Review of Hate Crime Legislation in the United States

Cited by 5 publications

References 42 publications

People With Disabilities and Violent Victimization in the Heartland: Results from the First Phase of the West Virginia Community Quality of Life Survey

People With Disabilities and Violent Victimization in the Heartland: Results from the First Phase of the West Virginia Community Quality of Life Survey

Assessment of Functional and Dysfunctional Perceived Threat of Hate Crimes Among Persons With and Without Disability

Prototypes of Hate and Expectations of the Model Victim

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