A comprehensive review and call for studies on firefly larvae

Abstract

Background Fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) are commonly recognized by adult traits, such as a soft exoskeleton, lanterns and associated glow and flash patterns, but their larval stage is far less appreciated. However, fireflies spend most of their lives as larvae, and adults of most species rely solely on resources previously obtained. Therefore, studying the immature stages is imperative towards a comprehensive understanding of fireflies. This paper reviews and indicates key gaps in the biology of firefly larvae based on available literature. Methodology We reviewed the literature on firefly larvae to identify key issues and important taxonomic, geographic, and subject biases and gaps. Results We found 376 papers that included information on firefly larvae. Only 139 species in 47 genera across eight of eleven lampyrid subfamilies have been studied during larval stages. These numbers reveal a staggering gap, since 94% of species and over half of the genera of fireflies were never studied in a crucial stage of their life cycle. Most studies on firefly larvae focus on two subfamilies (Luciolinae and Lampyrinae) in four zoogeographic regions (Sino-Japanese, Oriental, Nearctic, and Palearctic), whereas the other subfamilies and regions remain largely unstudied. These studies mainly dealt with morphology and behavior, other subjects remaining greatly understudied by comparison, including habitats, life cycle, physiology and interactions. Conclusions Together, these literature biases and gaps highlight how little is known about firefly larvae, and warmly invite basic and applied research, in the field and in the lab, to overcome these limitations and improve our understanding of firefly biology to better preserve them.

Life history traits modulate the influence of environmental stressors on biodiversity: The case of fireflies, climate and artificial light at night

“…Thus, flightless females and immature stages were not considered in our analyses. Adult males, adult females and juveniles of most known firefly species use different resources, show distinct environmental requirements, play different roles in the structure of communities and, consequently, may respond to the same environmental gradient in contrasting ways (Riley et al, 2021). For instance, as discussed above, even though the adults of courtship signalling type I and type III do not respond or respond positively to ALAN, respectively, their bioluminescent juveniles have been shown to move away from artificially lit areas (Owens & Lewis, 2021b).…”

A new genus for two species of Japanese fireflies having aquatic larvae (Coleoptera, Lampyridae) and a definition of Luciola s. str.

“…Larval morphology requires a consistent approach especially as preliminary indications are that all Lampyridae larvae conform to a certain pattern especially with regard to their ventral surfaces (Riley et al 2021). Here our descriptions attempt to address this situation.…”

Species-Specific Flash Patterns Track the Nocturnal Behavior of Sympatric Taiwanese Fireflies

“…To date, more than 2000 firefly species have been described globally, from tropical to temperate zones [ 10 ]. All fireflies are luminescent during their larval stage (1–2 years), and the luminous courtship behavior only occurs during the short adult stage (2–4 weeks) [ 11 , 12 ]. To prevent cross-species mating, each firefly species has its own species-specific luminescence features (e.g., flash durations, flash frequencies, and flash colors) [ 3 ].…”