A changing trend in diagnostic methods of Influenza A (H3N2) virus in human: a review

Abstract

The influenza virus is classified into four types A, B, C, and D, but type A and B are responsible for major illnesses in people with influenza A being the only virus responsible for flu pandemics due to the presence of two surface proteins called hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N) on the virus. The two subtypes of influenza A virus, H1N1 and H3N2, have been known to cause many flu pandemics. Both subtypes change genetically and antigenically to produce variants (clades and subclades, also know as groups and subgroups). H3N2 tends to change rapidly, both genetically and antigenically whereas that of H1N1 generally tends to have smaller changes. Influenza A (H3N2) viruses have evolved to form many separate, genetically different clades that continue to co-circulate. Influenza A(H3N2) viruses have caused significant deaths as per WHO report. The review describes methods for detection of influenza A(H3N2) viruses by conventional serological methods as well as the advanced methods of molecular biology and biosensors. All these methods are based on different parameters and have different targets but the goal is to improve specificity and increase sensitivity. Amongst the molecular methods, real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is considered a gold standard test due to its many advantages whereas a number of other molecular methods are time-consuming, complex to perform or lack specificity. The review also considers bio-sensing methods for simple, rapid, highly sensitive, and specific detection of H3N2. The classification and principle of various H3N2 biosensors are also discussed.

Unlocking SARS-CoV-2 detection in low- and middle-income countries

“…Furthermore, PCR and qPCR methods are a straightforward analytical solution for a number of emerging pathogens. For instance, they were rapidly deployed in recent virus outbreaks, including influenza, SARS and MERS, Zika, dengue, and chikungunya, among others, that pose a serious threat to humans, either because of their pandemic potential or due to their recurrent appearance affecting communities in LMICs severely ( Johani and Hajeer, 2016 ; Johnson et al., 2016 ; Ravina et al., 2021 ; Silva et al., 2019 ). Scientists and health professionals promptly developed solutions to cope with the lack of molecular detection platforms.…”

Unlocking low- and middle-income countries to detect SARS-CoV-2

“…Furthermore, PCR and qPCR methods are a straightforward analytical solution for a number of emerging pathogens. For instance, they were rapidly deployed in recent virus outbreaks including Influenza, SARS and MERS, Zika, Dengue, and Chikungunya, among others, that pose a serious threat to humans, either because of their pandemic potential or due to their recurrent appearance affecting severely communities in LMICs (Johani and Hajeer, 2016; Johnson et al, 2016; Ravina et al, 2021; Silva et al, 2019). Scientists and health professionals promptly developed solutions to cope with the lack of molecular detection platforms.…”

Being on the alert for continuously evolving influenza viruses: Early detection and rapid intervention of newly emerging viruses

“…Amongst the molecular methods, real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is considered a gold standard test due to its many advantages whereas a number of other molecular methods are time-consuming, complex to perform or lack specificity (Ravina et al, 2021).…”