“…Patients with either congenital or acquired heart diseases commonly have abnormal contraction symptoms, manifested as weak contraction force, heart fibrillation, and arrhythmic beating. To this end, developing biosensing technologies to quantify contractility changes of in vitro cardiac models is essential for analyzing cardiomyocyte contractile functions and testing the therapeutic efficacy or potential cardiotoxicity of drug candidates. , To date, several biosensing techniques/platforms have been developed for the measurement of cardiac contraction of a single cardiomyocyte, 2D monolayers, and 3D in vitro cardiac tissues. − For example, video-based analysis of cardiomyocyte beating displacement or strain magnitude under microscopy, , atomic force microscopy (AFM), impedance change of interdigitated electrodes induced by cardiomyocyte beating, traction force microscopy, cell drum, and optical tracking of cantilevers or tissue wire deflection have all been developed. , Piezoresistive strain sensors were also integrated into flexible structures to realize continuous electrical readout of cardiomyocyte contractility. , Challenges exist in how to increase device sensitivity to accurately capture weak contractility signals generated by in vitro cardiac models, how to increase platform capacity for high-throughput drug testing, and how to integrate stimulating components, while investigating microenvironmental cues on cardiomyocyte development and maturation, and maladaptive remodeling.…”