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doi:10.1111/cogs.2019.43.issue-6

Cognitive Science

2019

DOI: 10.1111/cogs.2019.43.issue-6

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2021

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Cited by 2 publications

References 43 publications

(45 reference statements)

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Facial expression is retained in deep networks trained for face identification

2021

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Facial expressions distort visual cues for identification in two-dimensional images. Face processing systems in the brain must decouple image-based information from multiple sources to operate in the social world. Deep convolutional neural networks (DCNN) trained for face identification retain identity-irrelevant, image-based information (e.g., viewpoint). We asked whether a DCNN trained for identity also retains expression information that generalizes over viewpoint change. DCNN representations were generated for a controlled dataset containing images of 70 actors posing 7 facial expressions (happy, sad, angry, surprised, fearful, disgusted, neutral), from 5 viewpoints (frontal, 90° and 45° left and right profiles). Two-dimensional visualizations of the DCNN representations revealed hierarchical groupings by identity, followed by viewpoint, and then by facial expression. Linear discriminant analysis of full-dimensional representations predicted expressions accurately, mean 76.8% correct for happiness, followed by surprise, disgust, anger, neutral, sad, and fearful at 42.0%; chance 14.3%. Expression classification was stable across viewpoints. Representational similarity heatmaps indicated that image similarities within identities varied more by viewpoint than by expression. We conclude that an identity-trained, deep network retains shape-deformable information about expression and viewpoint, along with identity, in a unified form—consistent with a recent hypothesis for ventral visual stream processing.

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Facial expression is retained in deep networks trained for face identification

2021

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Closing the gap between single-unit and neural population codes: Insights from deep learning in face recognition

et al. 2021

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Single-unit responses and population codes differ in the “read-out” information they provide about high-level visual representations. Diverging local and global read-outs can be difficult to reconcile with in vivo methods. To bridge this gap, we studied the relationship between single-unit and ensemble codes for identity, gender, and viewpoint, using a deep convolutional neural network (DCNN) trained for face recognition. Analogous to the primate visual system, DCNNs develop representations that generalize over image variation, while retaining subject (e.g., gender) and image (e.g., viewpoint) information. At the unit level, we measured the number of single units needed to predict attributes (identity, gender, viewpoint) and the predictive value of individual units for each attribute. Identification was remarkably accurate using random samples of only 3% of the network's output units, and all units had substantial identity-predicting power. Cross-unit responses were minimally correlated, indicating that single units code non-redundant identity cues. Gender and viewpoint classification required large-scale pooling of units—individual units had weak predictive power. At the ensemble level, principal component analysis of face representations showed that identity, gender, and viewpoint separated into high-dimensional subspaces, ordered by explained variance. Unit-based directions in the representational space were compared with the directions associated with the attributes. Identity, gender, and viewpoint contributed to all individual unit responses, undercutting a neural tuning analogy. Instead, single-unit responses carry superimposed, distributed codes for face identity, gender, and viewpoint. This undermines confidence in the interpretation of neural representations from unit response profiles for both DCNNs and, by analogy, high-level vision.

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Untitled

Cited by 2 publications

References 43 publications

Facial expression is retained in deep networks trained for face identification

Facial expression is retained in deep networks trained for face identification

Closing the gap between single-unit and neural population codes: Insights from deep learning in face recognition

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