5 Ancient Climate and Archaeology: Uxmal, Chichén Itzá, and Their Collapse at the End of the Terminal Classic Period

Abstract

Archaeological data and evidence of climatic change are used to suggest that the collapse of Uxmal and Chichén Itzá in the Northern Maya Lowlands was the result of long and recurrent drought episodes in the eleventh century. Although environmental evidence indicates that drought episodes might have begun in the ninth century, they gradually increased in frequency through the eleventh century and generated devastating effects on the late Terminal Classic period civilization. Evidence of recurrent drought episodes in the Northern lowlands is reported from the Holtún Cenote at Chichén Itzá. This cenote (sinkhole) shows two moments of the climatic change that affected Northern Yucatán. First, it corroborates the existence of extreme dry environmental conditions during the Terminal Classic period dated between the ninth and eleventh centuries. Second, after C.E. 1100, the water level rose inside the Holtún Cenote when environmental conditions turned wetter at the beginning of the Postclassic period. [northern Yucatán, climatic change, drought episodes, wetter environment, Maya collapse.]

Unleashing Maya Warfare: Inquiry Into the Practical Aspects of War-Making

“…Research from the Puuc region of Mexico begins to paint a richer picture on how the growth of later Maya polities might have been tied to shifts in martial practice. Investigators have long debated whether Uxmal was the seat of a regional capital or under the control of Chichen Itza during the Terminal Classic (e.g., Bey and Gallareta Negrón 2019; Cobos et al 2014; Ringle 2012). In favor of an affiliated, yet independent status for Uxmal, Bey and Gallareta Negrón (2019) argue the expansion of the polity was propelled by a possible alliance with Chichen Itza and martial reforms.…”

Ancient Maya reservoirs, constructed wetlands, and future water needs

“…The Maya in the Puuc hills, for instance, relied on reservoirs and small household tanks ( chultunob ’) (7 to 95 m 3 ) as seen at the cities of Uxmal, Xuch, and Xcoch ( Fig. 1 ) ( 13 , 49 , 50 ). For example, Maya living in Xcoch began collecting water in the Middle Preclassic (c. 800 BCE) by diverting rainwater into one of the larger reservoirs, La Gondola (c. 79,200 m 3 ) ( 51 ).…”

“…Their regional differences resulted in distinctive, albeit intersecting, histories ( 12 ). The Maya abandoned cities in the southern lowlands by 900 CE while several cities in the northern lowlands witnessed an influx of people and a florescence (e.g., Chichén Itzá) that lasted centuries (some until the arrival of the Spanish in 1511) ( 13 , 14 ). Vital for Maya in both regions was the need to capture rainfall, especially to provide clean drinking water that lasted through the long dry season.…”

The political collapse of Chichén Itzá in climatic and cultural context

“…If accurate, this would suggest that the end of construction at Chichén Itzá occurred around AD 1000/1050 (Andrews et al 2003). Few radiocarbon dates have been reported for the site, leaving this debate unresolved (see Volta andBraswell 2014 andCobos et al 2014 for recent contributions to this debate). Archaeological and historic evidence indicates that Chichén Itzá remained a prominent ritual and pilgrimage center after its collapse, well into the Colonial period (Restall 1998;Roys 1967:173).…”

“…The identification of Sotuta ceramics in excavations in the ceremonial center (summarized in Ringle 2012:198) may support either interpretation. However, as the Nunnery Complex features some elements of International style architecture, this might suggest that the end of political activity at the site was concurrent with Chichén Itzá (see Cobos et al 2014 for an expanded discussion) and dates to the first half of the eleventh century. Only one radiocarbon date from Sayil remains after the chronometric hygiene, dating between cal AD 660-950.…”