40 Years of Helicobacter pylori: A Revolution in Biomedical Thought

Abstract

Background: Various microorganisms such as bacteria, virus, and fungi can infect humans and cause not just a simple infection but septic conditions, organ dysfunction, and precancerous conditions or cancer involving various organ systems. After the discovery of the microscope, it was easier to discover and study such microorganisms, as in the case of Helicobacter pylori, a pathogen that was seen in the distant era of the nineteenth century but without being recognized as such. It took 100 years to later discover the pathogenesis and the cancer that this bacterium can cause. Since it was discovered, until today, there has been a continuous search for the understanding of its pathogenetic mechanisms, and the therapeutic approach is continuously updated. Methods: We investigated how diagnosis and therapy were dealt with in the past and how researchers sought to understand, exactly, the pathogenetic biomolecular mechanisms of H. pylori, from the genesis of the infection to the current knowledge, with an analysis of carcinogenic mechanisms in the stomach. We have examined the scientific evolution of the knowledge of the disease over these 40 years in the gastroenterological and pharmacological fields. This was possible through a search in the databases of Medline, the WHO website, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website, PubMed, and Web of Science to analyze the earlier and the latest data regarding H. pylori. Results: With the scientific discoveries over time, thanks to an increasing number of progressions in scientific research in the analysis of the gastric mucosa, the role of Helicobacter pylori in peptic ulcer, carcinogenesis, and in some forms of gastric lymphoma was revealed. Furthermore, over the years, the biomolecular mechanism involvement in some diseases has also been noted (such as cardiovascular ones), which could affect patients positive for H. pylori. Conclusions: Thanks to scientific and technological advances, the role of the bacterium H. pylori in carcinogenesis has been discovered and demonstrated, and new prospective research is currently attempting to investigate the role of other factors in the stomach and other organs. Cancer from H. pylori infection had a high incidence rate compared to various types of cancer, but in recent years, it is improving thanks to the techniques developed in the detection of the bacterium and the evolution of therapies. Thus, although it has become an increasingly treatable disease, there is still continuous ongoing research in the field of treatment for resistance and pharma compliance. Furthermore, in this field, probiotic therapy is considered a valid adjuvant.

Increased Glycated Hemoglobin but Decreased Cholesterol after a Loss of Helicobacter pylori Infection: A Community-Based Longitudinal Metabolic Parameters Follow-Up Study

“…Serologic evidence of H. pylori infection is uncommon in children before age 10 but rises to 10% in adults between 18 and 30 years of age, and further increases to 50% in those age 60 or older [1,2]. H. pylori infection induces local inflammation in the stomach and a systemic immune reaction in the whole body [3]. The actions of the virulence factors of H. pylori include flagella, urease, lipopolysaccharides, adhesins to stimulate Lewis x antigen, type IV secretion of CagA and exotoxin of Vac A, lytic enzymes, and heat shock proteins [3].…”

“…H. pylori infection induces local inflammation in the stomach and a systemic immune reaction in the whole body [3]. The actions of the virulence factors of H. pylori include flagella, urease, lipopolysaccharides, adhesins to stimulate Lewis x antigen, type IV secretion of CagA and exotoxin of Vac A, lytic enzymes, and heat shock proteins [3]. Some immune related cells, such as mast cell, macrophage, and T-cell, are involved in H. pylori infected reaction.…”

“…H. pylori infection is associated with increased expression of the macrophage migratory inhibitory factor (MIF) protein and MIF mRNA in gastric epithelial and inflammatory cells; along with other cytokines, MIF may play a significant role in gastric inflammation [6]. T cell (e.g., Th1 cell) activation by H. pylori infection may contribute to more severe inflammatory condition [3]. Elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin 1, 8, 17, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and lowered levels of leptin are involved in these inflammatory reactions [3,7,8].…”

“…T cell (e.g., Th1 cell) activation by H. pylori infection may contribute to more severe inflammatory condition [3]. Elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin 1, 8, 17, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and lowered levels of leptin are involved in these inflammatory reactions [3,7,8]. A leptin deficiency and high levels of inflammatory cytokines are the critical mechanisms for insulin resistance (IR) and metabolic syndrome (MetS) [8][9][10][11].…”

Gastroprotective Effects of Spirulina platensis, Golden Kiwifruit Flesh, and Golden Kiwifruit Peel Extracts Individually or in Combination against Indomethacin-Induced Gastric Ulcer in Rats

“…The most prevalent causes of gastric ulcers are Helicobacter pylori infection (infecting almost half of the world's population, causes acute gastritis, chronic atrophic gastritis, gastro-esophageal reflux, ulcers of the stomach, and duodenum, esophageal cancer, gastric adenocarcinoma, MALT lymphomas, and gastric adenocarcinoma), nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and persistent drinking with gastric malignancy and chronic gastric ischemia being the less common causes. However, the clinical outcome of the infection may be influenced by a combination of bacterial factors, host factors, and environmental variables [2][3][4][5]. With regards to NSAIDs, indomethacin is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug that was introduced in 1963 to treat inflammatory diseases [6].…”