3D Bioprinting of Human Tissues: Biofabrication, Bioinks, and Bioreactors

Abstract

The field of tissue engineering has progressed tremendously over the past few decades in its ability to fabricate functional tissue substitutes for regenerative medicine and pharmaceutical research. Conventional scaffold-based approaches are limited in their capacity to produce constructs with the functionality and complexity of native tissue. Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting offers exciting prospects for scaffolds fabrication, as it allows precise placement of cells, biochemical factors, and biomaterials in a layer-by-layer process. Compared with traditional scaffold fabrication approaches, 3D bioprinting is better to mimic the complex microstructures of biological tissues and accurately control the distribution of cells. Here, we describe recent technological advances in bio-fabrication focusing on 3D bioprinting processes for tissue engineering from data processing to bioprinting, mainly inkjet, laser, and extrusion-based technique. We then review the associated bioink formulation for 3D bioprinting of human tissues, including biomaterials, cells, and growth factors selection. The key bioink properties for successful bioprinting of human tissue were summarized. After bioprinting, the cells are generally devoid of any exposure to fluid mechanical cues, such as fluid shear stress, tension, and compression, which are crucial for tissue development and function in health and disease. The bioreactor can serve as a simulator to aid in the development of engineering human tissues from in vitro maturation of 3D cell-laden scaffolds. We then describe some of the most common bioreactors found in the engineering of several functional tissues, such as bone, cartilage, and cardiovascular applications. In the end, we conclude with a brief insight into present limitations and future developments on the application of 3D bioprinting and bioreactor systems for engineering human tissue.

Wound and Skin Healing in Space: The 3D Bioprinting Perspective

“…For multilayered tissues like the skin, consisting of different cell types, this facilitates the fabrication process significantly. The whole field of BP has been tremendously developing since a couple of years, and the current state of the art is being described and reviewed continuously ( Shapira and Dvir, 2021 ; Zhang et al, 2021 ). BP technologies also offer new opportunities for process automation and standardization which is beneficial for translation into clinical applications, as well as for utilization in isolated environments with strictly limited facilities, like in space flight.…”

A Multidisciplinary Journey towards Bone Tissue Engineering

“…Other relevant surface features are surface roughness, surface free energy, surface charge, and surface topography, which can be easily tailored by chemical treatment or incorporation with bioactive molecules or artificial ECM [60]. Apparently, the biomaterial surface is the most critical aspect in the host immune response upon implantation and becomes responsible for avoiding macrophage adhesion and activation, as well as their fusion into foreign body giant cells [6].…”

New Insights into the Application of 3D-Printing Technology in Hernia Repair

“…Consistent with these requirements, advances in additive manufacturing have enabled the development of innumerable 3D-printed models, anatomical phantoms, surgical aids, devices, and prostheses for biomedical and tissue engineering applications. Over the years, a wide variety of biomaterials and constructs have been fabricated using this technology for hard and soft tissues, including but not limited to bone, skin, cartilage, cardiovascular system, skeletal muscle, solid organs, and nerves [72,[80][81][82].…”