“…The retention of composite resins relies on the adhesive system, which infiltrates into the collagen matrix to adhere to dentin [ 1 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Adhesion and adhesive performance on dentin are especially challenging due to the complexity of dentin, a mineralized dynamic biological composite tissue composed of 70% hydroxyapatite (HA), 30% type I collagen, multiple non-collagenous proteins, and water [ 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Due to the multi-scaled and multi-faceted events taking place at this complex resin–dentin adhesive interface, strategies developed so far have been slow to address the short lifespan of resin–dentin bonding and subsequently prevent the repeated failure of composite resin restorations [ 3 , 15 ].…”