Association between Breakfast Skipping and Body Weight—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Longitudinal Studies

Abstract

Globally, increasing rates of obesity are one of the most important health issues. The association between breakfast skipping and body weight is contradictory between cross-sectional and interventional studies. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to summarize this association based on observational longitudinal studies. We included prospective studies on breakfast skipping and overweight/obesity or weight change in adults. The literature was searched until September 2020 in PubMed and Web of Science. Summary risk ratios (RRs) or β coefficients with a 95% confidence interval (CI), respectively, were estimated in pairwise meta-analyses by applying a random-effects model. In total, nine studies were included in the systematic review and three of them were included in the meta-analyses. The meta-analyses indicated an 11% increased RR for overweight/obesity when breakfast was skipped on ≥3 days per week compared to ≤2 days per week (95% CI: 1.04, 1.19, n = two studies). The meta-analysis on body mass index (BMI) change displayed no difference between breakfast skipping and eating (β = −0.02; 95% CI: −0.05, 0.01; n = two studies). This study provides minimal evidence that breakfast skipping might lead to weight gain and the onset of overweight and obesity.

The Effect of Breakfast Skipping and Late Night Eating on Body Mass Index and Glycemic Control Among Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

“…The current findings are in line with a recent study published in the USA [12]. The association between breakfast skipping and BMI was discussed controversially (some found an association [13] while others found no relationship [14]). In the present survey, breakfast skipping was associated with a high BMI, in agreement with Gouda et al [15].…”

Breakfast Skipping, Weight, Cardiometabolic Risk, and Nutrition Quality in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled and Intervention Longitudinal Trials

“…Breakfast is the first meal of the day that ends the night fasting period and is deserving of special attention in the field of chrono-nutrition. Several observational studies of all ages reported an increased prevalence of OW/OB in people who skip breakfast [ 10 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 ], although these findings have been questioned in two recent meta-analyses on interventional studies in adults [ 11 , 39 ]. Our review demonstrates that breakfast skipping remains associated with a high prevalence of OW/OB and a worse nutritional profile in intervention RCTs and intervention longitudinal trials in children and adolescents.…”

Dietary Aspects to Incorporate in the Creation of a Mobile Image-Based Dietary Assessment Tool to Manage and Improve Diabetes

“…Biologically, breakfast consumption may hinder high concentrations of ghrelin and low concentrations of insulin, which induce hunger and eating [30]. These hormonal regulatory effects of breakfast consumption may translate to reduced appetite, lower caloric intake later throughout the day, improved weight control and lower T2D risk [28,30]; effects may be amplified when breakfast is skipped over 3 days per week compared to fewer days [31]. Additionally, consuming breakfast prior to lunch results in reduced glycemia and enhanced insulin after lunch, or "second meal phenomenon", due to enhanced beta-cell responsiveness at the second meal induced by the first meal [29].…”

“…A potential reason for the increased T2D risk associated with higher meal frequency compared to lower meal frequency may be related to an increase in total caloric intake throughout the day due to overeating, consuming energy-dense foods, especially those high in refined carbohydrates, increased portion size, and decreased quality of foods [31,37]. Furthermore, large amount of nutrients in infrequent meals, such as fat and protein, could be responsible for a prominent increase of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide level, inducing enough increase in insulin after the meal to maintain a controlled glucose excursion [39].…”