Dietary Salt (Sodium Chloride) Requirement and Adverse Effects of Salt Restriction in Humans

Nishimuta, Mamoru; Kodama, Naoko; Yoshitake, Yutaka; Shimada, Mieko; Serizawa, Naho

doi:10.3177/jnsv.64.83

Cited by 8 publications

(3 citation statements)

References 6 publications

(6 reference statements)

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“…A series of studies addressing Na, K, Ca, Mg, P, Fe, Zn, Cu and Mn was conducted in Japan and have been collectively analysed on several occasions (Kodama et al., ; Nishimuta et al., , , , ). Nishimuta et al.…”

Section: Criteria (Endpoints) On Which To Base Dietary Reference Valuesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Dietary reference values for sodium

Turck

Castenmiller²,

Henauw

et al. 2019

EFS2

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Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) derived dietary reference values (DRVs) for sodium. Evidence from balance studies on sodium and on the relationship between sodium intake and health outcomes, in particular cardiovascular disease (CVD)-related endpoints and bone health, was reviewed. The data were not sufficient to enable an average requirement (AR) or population reference intake (PRI) to be derived. However, by integrating the available evidence and associated uncertainties, the Panel considers that a sodium intake of 2.0 g/day represents a level of sodium for which there is sufficient confidence in a reduced risk of CVD in the general adult population. In addition, a sodium intake of 2.0 g/day is likely to allow most of the general adult population to maintain sodium balance. Therefore, the Panel considers that 2.0 g sodium/day is a safe and adequate intake for the general EU population of adults. The same value applies to pregnant and lactating women. Sodium intakes that are considered safe and adequate for children are extrapolated from the value for adults, adjusting for their respective energy requirement and including a growth factor, and are as follows: 1.1 g/day for children aged 1-3 years, 1.3 g/day for children aged 4-6 years, 1.7 g/day for children aged 7-10 years and 2.0 g/day for children aged 11-17 years, respectively. For infants aged 7-11 months, an Adequate Intake (AI) of 0.2 g/day is proposed based on upwards extrapolation of the estimated sodium intake in exclusively breast-fed infants aged 0-6 months. SummaryFollowing a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) was asked to deliver a Scientific Opinion on dietary reference values (DRVs) for the European population, including sodium.Sodium (Na + ) is the dominant cation in the extracellular fluid (ECF) of the body. The functions of sodium lie in its participation in the control of the volume and systemic distribution of total body water; enabling the cellular uptake of solutes; and the generation via interactions with potassium of transmembrane electrochemical potentials.Dietary sodium deficiency is rare in healthy European populations. Sodium chloride and other sodium salts are ubiquitous in the diet, and there are adaptive physiological mechanisms that reduce the losses of sodium in urine, faeces and sweat at low levels of sodium intake. Sodium chloride added during industrial food processing and discretionary use or food preservation is the major source of dietary sodium in Western diets. Other sources of sodium include inherently native sources and sodium-containing food additives, in which sodium may be associated with anions other than chloride.In healthy people, almost all dietary sodium is absorbed, even at very high level of intake. Following absorption, sodium ions are distributed by portal and systemic circulations, where their concentrations are maintained within a narrow range. Up to 95% o...

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Section: Criteria (Endpoints) On Which To Base Dietary Reference Valuesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Dietary reference values for sodium

Turck

Castenmiller²,

Henauw

et al. 2019

EFS2

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…Another study also depicted that sodium reduction only decreased the blood pressure in participants with a blood pressure in the highest 25th percentile of all population and the author also suggested to reframe the policy of lowering dietary sodium intake in the general population and hypertension patients [ 35 ]. Sodium is main extracellular cation in the body to maintain intravascular volume, which is required in human body and salt restriction in humans may cause some adverse effects [ 36 ]. A previous study also reported that salt-deficient diet promoted cystogenesis in ARPKD via epithelial sodium channel [ 37 ].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Role of no table salt on hypertension and stroke based on large sample size from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey database

Huang

Rong

et al. 2022

BMC Public Health

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Background To assess the associations between no table salt and hypertension or stroke. Methods The data of 15,352 subjects were collected from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) database. All subjects were divided into no hypertension or stroke group (n = 10,894), hypertension group (n = 5888), stroke group (n = 164) and hypertension and stroke group (n = 511). Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to measure the associations of salt type used with hypertension and stroke and co-variables were respectively adjusted in different models. Results After adjusting age and gender, other salt intake was associated with 1.88-fold risk of hypertension (OR = 1.88, 95%CI: 1.44–2.46) and no table salt was associated with 1.30-fold risk of hypertension (OR = 1.30, 95%CI: 1.15–1.47). After adjusting age, gender, race, BMI, PIR, marital status, CVDs, whether doctors’ told them to reduce salt, and diabetes, the risk of hypertension was 1.23-fold increase in no table salt group (OR = 1.23, 95%CI: 1.04–1.46). After the adjustment of age and gender, the risk of hypertension and stroke was 3.33-fold increase (OR = 3.33, 95%CI: 2.12–5.32) in other salt intake group and 1.43-fold increase (OR = 1.43, 95%CI:1.17–1.74) in no table salt group. Conclusion Other salt intake or no table salt were associated with a higher risk of hypertension or hypertension and stroke.

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“…Even though it is necessary for the proper functioning of the organism, the intake of dietary salt (sodium chloride; NaCl) should be maintained at under 5 g/per day according to the World Health Organization (WHO) [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. A high salt intake and its detrimental effects have been extensively explored for several decades, considering its contribution to inflammation [ 5 , 6 , 7 ], cardiovascular disease development [ 8 , 9 ], and other related complications [ 10 , 11 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Tff3−/− Knock-Out Mice with Altered Lipid Metabolism Exhibit a Lower Level of Inflammation following the Dietary Intake of Sodium Chloride for One Week

Kolobarić

Mihalj

Kozina

et al. 2023

IJMS

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A high salt intake causes hemodynamic changes and promotes immune response through cell activation and cytokine production, leading to pro-inflammatory conditions. Transgenic Tff3−/− knock-out mice (TFF3ko) (n = 20) and wild-type mice (WT) (n = 20) were each divided into the (1) low-salt (LS) group and (2) high-salt (HS) group. Ten-week-old animals were fed with standard rodent chow (0.4% NaCl) (LS) or food containing 4% NaCl (HS) for one week (7 days). Inflammatory parameters from the sera were measured by Luminex assay. The integrin expression and rates of T cell subsets of interest from the peripheral blood leukocytes (PBLs) and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs) were measured using flow cytometry. There was a significant increase in high-sensitivity C reactive protein (hsCRP) only in the WT mice following the HS diet, while there were no significant changes in the serum levels of IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-4, or IL-6 as a response to treatment in either study groups. The rates of CD4+CD25+ T cells from MLNs decreased, while CD3+γδTCR+ from peripheral blood increased following the HS diet only in TFF3ko. γδTCR expressing T cell rates decreased in WT following the HS diet. The CD49d/VLA-4 expression decreased in the peripheral blood leukocytes in both groups following the HS diet. CD11a/LFA-1 expression significantly increased only in the peripheral blood Ly6C−CD11ahigh monocytes in WT mice following salt loading. In conclusion, salt-loading in knock-out mice caused a lower level of inflammatory response compared with their control WT mice due to gene depletion.

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Dietary Salt (Sodium Chloride) Requirement and Adverse Effects of Salt Restriction in Humans

Cited by 8 publications

References 6 publications

Dietary reference values for sodium

Dietary reference values for sodium

Role of no table salt on hypertension and stroke based on large sample size from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey database

Tff3−/− Knock-Out Mice with Altered Lipid Metabolism Exhibit a Lower Level of Inflammation following the Dietary Intake of Sodium Chloride for One Week

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