Microbiological contamination of the euro currency in Estonia

Mändar, Karsten; Sõber, Tiina; Kõljalg, Siiri; Rööp, Tiiu; Mändar, Reet; Sepp, Epp

doi:10.1080/23744235.2016.1201725

Cited by 10 publications

(10 citation statements)

References 7 publications

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“…In the United States, 94% contamination of circulating one dollar bill was reported in 2002 (5). A similar high contamination rate has been reported in Estonia (6), Pakistan (7), Croatia (2) and Ghana (8).…”

Section: Introductionsupporting

confidence: 55%

Microbial contamination of Naira notes circulating in Bauchi metropolis: prevalence, microbial load and detection of extended spectrum beta-lactamase producing Gram-negative bacteria

Usman¹,

Sani²,

Ibrahim³

et al. 2021

Af J Clin Exp Micro

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Background: Globally, contamination of banknotes with various microbial species is increasingly being reported. This usually results from improper handling during exchange of goods and services. In the present study, we aimed to determine the microbial load, prevalence and the presence of Extended Spectrum Beta Lactamase (ESBL) among bacteria isolated from the Nigerian Naira notes circulating in Bauchi metropolis.Methodology: A total of 400 Naira notes of various denominations were randomly collected aseptically, cultured and total viable counts determined. The isolated microbial species were identified using standard microbiological techniques. Antibiotic susceptibility of the isolates and detection of ESBL were determined by Kirby-Bauer’s disc diffusion method and Double Disc Synergy Test (DDST), respectively.Results: All the 400 samples collected were contaminated with various microbial species. The highest mean colony count was detected in 20 Naira notes (28.5%), while the least was observed in 1000 Naira note (3.3%). Fourteen different microbial species were isolated from the contaminated currency notes, predominantly Escherichia coli (25.0%), and Staphylococcus aureus (12.0%). Some fungal species mainly Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger were also isolated. Majority of the bacteria isolates resistant to the third generation cephalosporins (72.1%) were ESBL positive.Conclusion: The study shows that Naira notes circulating in Bauchi metropolis were heavily contaminated with various microbial species, and a high proportion of the isolated Gram-negative bacteria were ESBL producers. Efforts should thus be made to improve hygiene practices in the study area. Importantly, businesses should be encouraged to adopt the use of electronic transactions. Keywords: Currency notes, Naira, Microbial contamination, ESBL

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Section: Introductionsupporting

confidence: 55%

Microbial contamination of Naira notes circulating in Bauchi metropolis: prevalence, microbial load and detection of extended spectrum beta-lactamase producing Gram-negative bacteria

Usman¹,

Sani²,

Ibrahim³

et al. 2021

Af J Clin Exp Micro

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“…Other studies regarding contamination ascribed to microbial load specific to national currency notes have been reported in Bangladesh ( Ahmed et al, 2010 ; Hosen et al, 2006 ), Ethiopia ( Alemayehu & Ashenafi, 2019 ), India ( Rote, Deogade & Kawale, 2010 ), Iran ( Dehghani, Dehghani & Estakhr, 2011 ), Nepal ( Lamichhane et al, 2009 ; Prasai, Yami & Joshi, 2008 ), Nigeria ( Awe et al, 2010 ; Kawo et al, 2009 ; Oyero & Emikwe, 2007 ; Umeh, Juluku & Ichor, 2007 ), Saudi Arabia ( Ghamdi et al, 2011 ; Rashed et al, 2006 ), South Africa ( Igumbor et al, 2007 ), as well as Sudan ( Saadabi et al, 2010 ). In Europe, Mändar et al (2016) studied microbial contamination of euro money, whereas in the USA, Michaels (2002) reported on handling money and serving ready-to-eat food, which considered the same gloved hands or without hygiene intervention, and provided in food service establishments, would introduce the risk of cross-contamination to foods. In the global front, Vriesekoop et al (2010) performed the hygiene status of some world’s currencies by capturing food outlets in 10 different countries (Australia, Burkina Faso, China, Ireland, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nigeria, Mexico, the United Kingdom, and the United States).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Bacterial contamination of Nigerian currency notes: A comparative analysis of different denominations recovered from local food vendors

Ofoedu

Iwouno

Agunwah

et al. 2021

PeerJ

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Microbial transmission, on the surface of any currency note, can either be through direct (hand-to-hand contact) or indirect (food or other inanimate objects) means. To ascertain the degree of bacterial load enumerated during the handling of money and food items, particularly on currency note by denominations, should be of public health importance. Despite the available literature regarding microbial contamination of Nigerian currency notes, there is still paucity of information about how microbial contamination/load differ across the denominations specific to different food vendors. In this context, therefore, the current study investigated bacterial contamination of Nigerian currency notes via a comparative study of different denominations (₦1,000, ₦500, ₦200, ₦100, ₦50, ₦20, and 10, and ₦5) recovered from local food vendors. Specifically, the different food handlers/vendors included fruit, meat, vegetable, fish, and grain/cereal sellers. All emergent data from 8 × 5 factorial design of experiment were of duplicate measurements. To consider the currency denominations and food vendor type, a one-factor-at-a-time analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted. Results showed that about 81.7% of currency notes were contaminated with either Escherichia coli, Klebsiella spp. or Staphylococcus spp. in varying degrees. The higher denominations of ₦500, ₦200, and ₦100 note, with the exception of ₦1,000 note, recorded increased degree of contamination over the lower denominations of ₦50, ₦20, ₦10, and ₦5 note. Based on the total viable count (TVC), the ₦100 currency note appeared the most contaminated (1.32 × 105 cfu/ml) whereas ₦5 note appeared the least contaminated (1.46 × 104 cfu/ml). The frequency of isolated bacteria on currency notes from vegetable, meat, and fish sellers were significantly higher (p < 0.05) compared to other food vendors. The degree of bacterial contamination of the current work appears chiefly dependent on the food vendor type and currency denomination(s). This work calls for increased awareness and education among food vendors and ready-to-eat food sellers. Doing this would help mitigate the possible cross-contamination between currency notes and foodstuff. Through this, consumers would know more about the potential health risks such simultaneous activities (of handling currency notes and foodstuff) do pose on food safety.

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“…We found more frequently the presence of potentially pathogenic S. aureus, Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas, Bacillus cereus or Neisseria flavescens in case of more than one percent of E. faecalis DNA compared to less than one percent in total bacterial 16S rRNA of studied 27 mobile phones (10/15 vs. 3/12, respectively; p=0.031). The non-pathogenic skin microbe M. luteus frequently found in large amounts on circulating currencies 20,21 was also found more frequently on phones with more than one compared to less than one percent (11/15 vs. 4/12, respectively; p=0.038) of E. faecalis DNA (Table 1). Although in our study an evaluation of the health condition of schoolchildren was not addressed, E. faecalis appeared to be a good environmental contamination indicator.…”

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confidence: 99%

High level bacterial contamination of secondary school students’ mobile phones

Kõljalg

Mändar

Sõber³

et al. 2017

GERMS

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Introduction While contamination of mobile phones in the hospital has been found to be common in several studies, little information about bacterial abundance on phones used in the community is available. Our aim was to quantitatively determine the bacterial contamination of secondary school students' mobile phones.Methods Altogether 27 mobile phones were studied. The contact plate method and microbial identification using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometer were used for culture studies. Quantitative PCR reaction for detection of universal 16S rRNA, Enterococcus faecalis 16S rRNA and Escherichia coli allantoin permease were performed, and the presence of tetracycline (tetA, tetB, tetM), erythromycin (ermB) and sulphonamide (sul1) resistance genes was assessed.Results We found a high median bacterial count on secondary school students' mobile phones (10.5 CFU/cm 2 ) and a median of 17,032 bacterial 16S rRNA gene copies per phone. Potentially pathogenic microbes (Staphylococcus aureus, Acinetobacter spp., Pseudomonas spp., Bacillus cereus and Neisseria flavescens) were found among dominant microbes more often on phones with higher percentage of E. faecalis in total bacterial 16S rRNA. No differences in contamination level or dominating bacterial species between phone owner's gender and between phone types (touch screen/keypad) were found. No antibiotic resistance genes were detected on mobile phone surfaces. Conclusion Quantitative study methods revealed high level bacterial contamination of secondary school students' mobile phones.

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Microbiological contamination of the euro currency in Estonia

Cited by 10 publications

References 7 publications

Microbial contamination of Naira notes circulating in Bauchi metropolis: prevalence, microbial load and detection of extended spectrum beta-lactamase producing Gram-negative bacteria

Microbial contamination of Naira notes circulating in Bauchi metropolis: prevalence, microbial load and detection of extended spectrum beta-lactamase producing Gram-negative bacteria

Bacterial contamination of Nigerian currency notes: A comparative analysis of different denominations recovered from local food vendors

High level bacterial contamination of secondary school students’ mobile phones

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