Summary
Genetically Encoded Ca
2+
Indicators (GECIs) are extensively used to study organelle Ca
2+
homeostasis, although some available probes are still plagued by a number of problems, e.g., low fluorescence intensity, partial mistargeting, and pH sensitivity. Furthermore, in the most commonly used mitochondrial Förster Resonance Energy Transfer based-GECIs, the donor protein ECFP is characterized by a double exponential lifetime that complicates the fluorescence lifetime analysis. We have modified the cytosolic and mitochondria-targeted Cameleon GECIs by (1) substituting the donor ECFP with mCerulean3, a brighter and more stable fluorescent protein with a single exponential lifetime; (2) extensively modifying the constructs to improve targeting efficiency and fluorescence changes caused by Ca
2+
binding; and (3) inserting the cDNAs into adeno-associated viral vectors for
in vivo
expression. The probes have been thoroughly characterized
in situ
by fluorescence microscopy and Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy, and examples of their
ex vivo
and
in vivo
applications are described.