25-hydroxylation of vitamin D3 in rat liver: Roles of mitochondrial and microsomal cytochrome P-450

Exchange Rates, Prices, and Wages, 1277–2008

“…The price level tended to follow the mint price rather than the mint equivalent, at least in the short term. 15 In her study, Angela Redish concludes that the effect of undervaluation was ambiguous. 16 The high seignorage rate during a debasement (which was typical 17 ) partly constitutes a temporary deviation from free minting in the proper sense and introduces elements of a fiat standard.…”

“…14 The mint equivalent less the mint price is the gross seignorage per unit weight. 15 Gross seignorage includes minting costs; net seignorage is the mint's pure profit. The seignorage rate is the ratio of seignorage per unit weight to the mint price (of the same unit weight).…”

“…14 Foreign money was also in use when the domestic coin was debased (see below) and when the Crown for one reason or another ceased to mint, as seems to have been the case in Sweden in several years around 1400. 15 There are many examples of exchange rates on foreign coins. The most frequently mentioned up to the mid-14th century were English and French silver coins.…”

“…14 In addition, bank money had other advantages even compared to newly minted coins; since it was secure from fire, robbery and other accidents, it could easily be transferred between cities, etc. As pointed out by Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations: 15 Th e agio of the bank of Hamburg, for example, which is said to be commonly about fourteen per cent, is the supposed diff erence between the good standard money of the state, and the clipt, worn, and diminished currency poured into it from all the neighbouring states.…”

“…The indemnity which France, as the loser, had to pay Prussia served as a basis for the unification of Germany and a final amalgamation of German currency systems. 15 Germany's adoption of a gold standard was followed 13 See e.g. McKinnon (1993).…”