Toxicity of new generation flame retardants to Daphnia magna

Waaijers, Susanne L.; Hartmann, Julia; Soeter, A. Marieke; Helmus, Rick; Kools, S.A.E.; Voogt, P. de; Admiraal, Wim; Parsons, John R.; Kraak, Michiel H.S.

doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.06.110

Cited by 71 publications

(49 citation statements)

References 16 publications

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“…10 Thus, DOPO and its derivatives are considered as efficient and eco-friendly alternatives or replacements for toxic halogenated flame retardant additives.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Synthesis of DOPO-Based Phosphonamidates and their Thermal Properties

Neisius

Lutz

Rentsch

et al. 2014

Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.

113

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Synthetic strategies for the preparation of 9,10-dihydro-9,10-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide (DOPO) derivatives are of special interest for polymer industry as well as academia involved in development of halogen-free flame retardant additives. In this work, various amino-DOPO derivatives (phosphonamidates) were synthesized by employing three different synthetic methods involving various chlorinating agents. The synthetic methods were compared with regards to purity and yield of the resulting amino-DOPO derivatives. The chlorinating agents that were used in this work are namely CCl 4 , trichloroisocyanuric acid and sulfuryl chloride. Some compounds, e.g., amine substituted DOPO derivative, could be synthesized using sulfuryl chloride with a yield >94% and a purity >99%. As proof of possible future industrial scale-up, up-scaling laboratory trials at the 500 g scale were also performed for two methods. The synthesized compounds were characterized for their melting point and thermal stability by using thermogravimetric analysis and direct probe insertion mass spectrometry. In general, these amino-DOPO derivatives exhibited high thermal stability with some having stability >320°C.

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“…10 Thus, DOPO and its derivatives are considered as efficient and eco-friendly alternatives or replacements for toxic halogenated flame retardant additives.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Synthesis of DOPO-Based Phosphonamidates and their Thermal Properties

Neisius

Lutz

Rentsch

et al. 2014

Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.

113

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“…15,16 The Daphnia magna neonates (younger than 24 h, clone 4) used in this study were obtained from Grontmij Aquasense (Amsterdam, The Netherlands) and were cultured in Elendt M4 medium according to the OECD guideline. 14 For an extensive description of the specific culture conditions, see Waaijers et al 8 At regular intervals (about every three months), acute toxicity tests were performed with the reference toxicant K 2 Cr 2 O 7 to check whether the sensitivity of the D. magna culture was within the limits (EC 50 , 24 h = 0.6−2.1 mg L −1 ) as set by the guideline. 17 2.2.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…7 Therefore, we generated reliable toxicity data for a selection of HFFRs that are potential replacements for BFRs in polymers. 8 Several HFFRs exerted no acute toxicity to daphnids, making them promising substitutes, while highly toxic compounds could be discarded as alternative flame retardants. However, in order to reliably evaluate the environmental hazard of compounds showing a low acute toxicity, they should also be subjected to chronic toxicity testing, since toxicity tends to increase with increasing exposure time.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…13 With these OPFRs we performed Daphnia magna life cycle toxicity tests 14 and integrated the obtained data into EC 50 values for population growth rate. In this way we aimed to assess whether or not these compounds, showing a low acute toxicity, 8 are also nonhazardous upon chronic exposure and subsequently, obtaining a first indication whether or not ALPI and DOPO are suitable candidates for BFR replacement in polymers.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Daphnid Life Cycle Responses to New Generation Flame Retardants

Waaijers

Bleyenberg

Dits

et al. 2013

Environ. Sci. Technol.

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Relatively hazardous brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are currently substituted with halogen-free flame retardants (HFFRs). Consequently, information on their persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity (PBT) is urgently needed. Therefore, we investigated the chronic toxicity to the water flea Daphnia magna of two HFFRs, aluminum diethylphosphinate (ALPI) and 9,10-dihyro-9-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-oxide (DOPO). The toxicity of ALPI increased from a 48 h LC50 of 18 mg L(-1) to a 21 day LC50 value of 3.2 mg L(-1), resulting in an acute-to-chronic ratio of 5.6. This may imply a change in classification from low to moderate toxicity. ALPI also affected sublethal life cycle parameters, with an EC50 of 2.8 mg L(-1) for cumulative reproductive output and of 3.4 mg L(-1) for population growth rate, revealing a nonspecific mode of action. DOPO showed only sublethal effects with an EC50 value of 48 mg L(-1) for cumulative reproductive output and an EC50 value of 73 mg L(-1) for population growth rate. The toxicity of DOPO to D. magna was classified as low and likely occurred above environmentally relevant concentrations, but we identified specific effects on reproduction. Given the low chronic toxicity of DOPO and the moderate toxicity of ALPI, based on this study only, DOPO seems to be more suitable than ALPI for BFR replacement in polymers.

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“…However, the (neuro)toxic potential of such alternative flame retardants is largely unknown (for review, see (Waaijers et al 2013a). The acute environmental toxicity of aluminum diethylphosphinate (Alpi; a phosphorous flame retardant) and zinc stannate (ZS; an inorganic flame retardant) investigated in water fleas (Daphnia magna) indicated that both substances could be suitable candidates for BFR replacement (Waaijers et al 2013b). Recently, we investigated the in vitro neurotoxic potential of a number of suggested HFFRs on several neurotoxic endpoints in vitro, including cytotoxicity, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), calcium homeostasis and nACh receptor function (Hendriks et al 2012b(Hendriks et al , 2014, with the purpose of prioritizing HFFRs for substitution of BFRs.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%