100 000 Frames/s 64 × 32 Single-Photon Detector Array for 2-D Imaging and 3-D Ranging

Bronzi, Danilo; Villa, Federica; Tisa, Simone; Tosi, Alberto; Zappa, Franco; Durini, Daniel; Weyers, Sascha; Brockherde, W.

doi:10.1109/jstqe.2014.2341562

Cited by 157 publications

(118 citation statements)

References 54 publications

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“…Compared to phase-resolved (also called "indirect" TOF) ranging systems, based just on photon-counting (see for example [16] and [17]), this "direct" TOF approach does not need to reconstruct the full optical waveform, and therefore requires less photons to perform the measurement; the drawbacks are the necessity for a more expensive sub-nanosecond pulsed laser and a more sophisticated in-pixel photon-timing electronics. We operated the in-pixel TDCs in order to provide an LSB (Least Significant Bit) of about 5.6 cm distance resolution (i.e.…”

Section: Camera Architecturementioning

confidence: 99%

Enhanced single-photon time-of-flight 3D ranging

Lussana¹,

Villa²,

Mora³

et al. 2015

Opt. Express

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Abstract:We developed a system for acquiring 3D depth-resolved maps by measuring the Time-of-Flight (TOF) of single photons. It is based on a CMOS 32 × 32 array of Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPADs) and 350 ps resolution Time-to-Digital Converters (TDCs) into each pixel, able to provide photon-counting or photon-timing frames every 10 µs. We show how such a system can be used to scan large scenes in just hundreds of milliseconds. Moreover, we show how to exploit TDC unwarping and refolding for improving signal-to-noise ratio and extending the full-scale depth range. Additionally, we merged 2D and 3D information in a single image, for easing object recognition and tracking.

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Section: Camera Architecturementioning

confidence: 99%

Enhanced single-photon time-of-flight 3D ranging

Lussana¹,

Villa²,

Mora³

et al. 2015

Opt. Express

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“…The imager chip is based on 64 × 32 SPAD array fabricated in an automotive-grade 0.35 µm high-voltage 2P-4M CMOS technology on 8-inch wafers with local-oxide silicon based (LOCOS) insulations [6]. Each pixel integrates a 30 µm single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD), the related sensing and quenching circuitry (to manage the avalanche current ignition and to generate a synchronous voltage pulse), the shaping electronics (to control the voltage pulses duration), the processing circuitry (for iTOF, respectively) and data read-out (to store and buffer data).…”

Section: Single-photon Cameramentioning

confidence: 99%

SPADAS: a high-speed 3D single-photon camera for advanced driver assistance systems

Bronzi

Zou

Bellisai

et al. 2015

Smart Photonic and Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits XVII

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Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) are the most advanced technologies to fight road accidents. Within ADAS, an important role is played by radar-and lidar-based sensors, which are mostly employed for collision avoidance and adaptive cruise control. Nonetheless, they have a narrow field-of-view and a limited ability to detect and differentiate objects. Standard camera-based technologies (e.g. stereovision) could balance these weaknesses, but they are currently not able to fulfill all automotive requirements (distance range, accuracy, acquisition speed, and frame-rate). To this purpose, we developed an automotive-oriented CMOS single-photon camera for optical 3D ranging based on indirect time-of-flight (iTOF) measurements.Imagers based on Single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) arrays offer higher sensitivity with respect to CCD/CMOS rangefinders, have inherent better time resolution, higher accuracy and better linearity. Moreover, iTOF requires neither high bandwidth electronics nor short-pulsed lasers, hence allowing the development of cost-effective systems. The CMOS SPAD sensor is based on 64 × 32 pixels, each able to process both 2D intensity-data and 3D depth-ranging information, with background suppression. Pixel-level memories allow fully parallel imaging and prevents motion artefacts (skew, wobble, motion blur) and partial exposure effects, which otherwise would hinder the detection of fast moving objects. The camera is housed in an aluminum case supporting a 12 mm F/1.4 C-mount imaging lens, with a 40°×20° field-of-view. The whole system is very rugged and compact and a perfect solution for vehicle's cockpit, with dimensions of 80 mm × 45 mm × 70 mm, and less that 1 W consumption. To provide the required optical power (1.5 W, eye safe) and to allow fast (up to 25 MHz) modulation of the active illumination, we developed a modular laser source, based on five laser driver cards, with three 808 nm lasers each.We present the full characterization of the 3D automotive system, operated both at night and during daytime, in both indoor and outdoor, in real traffic, scenario. The achieved long-range (up to 45m), high dynamic-range (118 dB), highspeed (over 200 fps) 3D depth measurement, and high precision (better than 90 cm at 45 m), highlight the excellent performance of this CMOS SPAD camera for automotive applications.

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“…On the other hand very scaled CMOS technologies make it possible to develop very dense arrays of SPADs with in-pixel pre-processing electronics [9]- [11].…”

Section: Cmos Spadmentioning

confidence: 99%

High linearity SPAD and TDC array for TCSPC and 3D ranging applications

Villa

Lussana

Bronzi

et al. 2015

Quantum Sensing and Nanophotonic Devices XII

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An array of 32x32 Single-Photon Avalanche-Diodes (SPADs) and Time-to-Digital Converters (TDCs) has been fabricated in a 0.35 µm automotive-certified CMOS technology. The overall dimension of the chip is 9x9 mm 2 . Each pixel is able to detect photons in the 300 nm -900 nm wavelength range with a fill-factor of 3.14% and either to count them or to time stamp their arrival time. In photon-counting mode an in-pixel 6-bit counter provides photon-numberresolved intensity movies at 100 kfps, whereas in photon-timing mode the 10-bit in-pixel TDC provides time-resolved maps (Time-Correlated Single-Photon Counting measurements) or 3D depth-resolved (through direct time-of-flight technique) images and movies, with 312 ps resolution. The photodetector is a 30 µm diameter SPAD with low Dark Count Rate (120 cps at room temperature, 3% hot-pixels) and 55% peak Photon Detection Efficiency (PDE) at 450 nm. The TDC has a 6-bit counter and a 4-bit fine interpolator, based on a Delay Locked Loop (DLL) line, which makes the TDC insensitive to process, voltage, and temperature drifts. The implemented sliding-scale technique improves linearity, giving 2% LSB DNL and 10% LSB INL. The single-shot precision is 260 ps rms, comprising SPAD, TDC and driving board jitter. Both optical and electrical crosstalk among SPADs and TDCs are negligible. 2D fast movies and 3D reconstructions with centimeter resolution are reported.

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100 000 Frames/s 64 × 32 Single-Photon Detector Array for 2-D Imaging and 3-D Ranging

Cited by 157 publications

References 54 publications

Enhanced single-photon time-of-flight 3D ranging

Enhanced single-photon time-of-flight 3D ranging

SPADAS: a high-speed 3D single-photon camera for advanced driver assistance systems

High linearity SPAD and TDC array for TCSPC and 3D ranging applications

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