The human adrenal cortex: growth control and disorders

Abstract

This review summarizes key knowledge regarding the development, growth, and growth disorders of the adrenal cortex from a molecular perspective. The adrenal gland consists of two distinct regions: the cortex and the medulla. During embryological development and transition to the adult adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex acquires three different structural and functional zones. Significant progress has been made in understanding the signaling and molecules involved during adrenal cortex zonation. Equally significant is the knowledge obtained regarding the action of peptide factors involved in the maintenance of zonation of the adrenal cortex, such as peptides derived from proopiomelanocortin processing, adrenocorticotropin and N-terminal proopiomelanocortin. Findings regarding the development, maintenance and growth of the adrenal cortex and the molecular factors involved has improved the scientific understanding of disorders that affect adrenal cortex growth. Hypoplasia, hyperplasia and adrenocortical tumors, including adult and pediatric adrenocortical adenomas and carcinomas, are described together with findings regarding molecular and pathway alterations. Comprehensive genomic analyses of adrenocortical tumors have shown gene expression profiles associated with malignancy as well as methylation alterations and the involvement of miRNAs. These findings provide a new perspective on the diagnosis, therapeutic possibilities and prognosis of adrenocortical disorders.

A Preliminary Study for Distinguish Hormone-Secreting Functional Adrenocortical Adenoma Subtypes Using Multiparametric CT Radiomics-Based Machine Learning Model and Nomogram

“…The concept underlying the radiomics process is that both morphological and functional clinical images contain qualitative and quantitative information, which may reflect the underlying tissue-level features, in line with pathological findings (31). Previous studies have reported there were subtle structural and pathological differences between APA and CPA, which had different proportions composed of clear cells (lipid rich), compact cells (lipid poor), cell arrangement, and blood sinus, the same as previously discussed (23,24). APA cells contained mitochondria with lamellar-type or plate-like cristae, whereas CPA cells contained mitochondria with tubulovesicular cristae (24).…”

“…The cells of the zona fasciculata and the zona glomerulosa of the adrenal cortex are responsible for producing cortisol and aldosterone, respectively. Histology shows that the zona fasciculata in the adrenal cortex occupies a larger area than zona glomerulosa; the former is the thickest zonas making up 50% of the cortex, and the latter accounts for around 15% of the thickness of the cortex (23). Next, the mean CT attenuation of CPA on precontrast CT image is higher than that of APA.…”

Adrenal Gland Irradiation Causes Fatigue Accompanied by Reactive Changes in Cortisol Levels

“…The adrenal glands consist of the outer connective tissue capsule, the cortex, and the medulla. The adrenal cortex and medulla have distinct embryologic and physiological functions [ 9 ]. The adrenal cortex is composed of three zones—the zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and zona reticularis—which release mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens, respectively.…”

Peculiarities of microstructure of the suprarenal glands of rabbits with different types of autonomic tone

“…This is explained by the fact that during the embryonic period the cortex of the suprarenal glands is represented by an interrenal gland with non-differentiated cells (Barwick et al, 2005;El-Nahla et al, 2011;Xing et al, 2015). Formation of the zona glomerulosa and zona fasciculata (Sokolov, 1972;Kataoka, 1996;Lotfi et al, 2018) begins only in the second half of the embryonic development. A number of authors (Freedman et al, 2013;Pihlajoki et al, 2015) state that the cells of the zona glomerulosa can change and become cells of zona fasciculata.…”