Professional Image Maintenance: How Women Navigate Pregnancy in the Workplace

Abstract

Women now constitute a significant portion of the workforce, making the effects of pregnancy on professional image (others' perceptions of competence and character at work) more salient. While opinions regarding how pregnant women should manage others' impressions and the consequences of doing so abound (Noveck, 2012) research to substantiate or disconfirm these opinions has lagged. In this paper, we present three studies that develop and test a model of social identitybased impression management (SIM) techniques used by pregnant workers. In Study 1 (n ‫؍‬ 35), we utilized qualitative methods to identify the motives and strategies used by pregnant women to manage their professional images. In the second study, we collected two samples (n ‫؍‬ 199 and n ‫؍‬ 133) to develop and validate two scales based on the motives and strategies identified in Study 1. In Study 3 (n ‫؍‬ 200), we employed a time-lagged design to examine how SIM motives and strategies affect important workplace outcomes: perceived discrimination, burnout, and returning to one's job after maternity leave. Our findings demonstrate both positive and negative outcomes of the motives and strategies women use to manage their images at work when pregnant. Professional image is the aggregate of others' perceptions of an individual's competence and character in the workplace (Roberts, 2005). Because of the implications for achieving social approval, power, and career success, employees invest considerable time and energy into constructing their professional images (Baumeister, 1982; Ibarra, 1999; Roberts, 2005). Although research on professional image construction has historically focused on the personal attributes that influence an indi-vidual's professional image, such as dress, nonverbal cues, and verbal cues, more recently, Roberts (2005) has called attention to the role played by social identities. Social identities are the "various meanings attached to a person by self and others" (Ibarra, 1999: 766). An individual possesses multiple social identities-for example, as a woman, a mother, and an African American. Unfortunately, as a good deal of extant research on discrimination demonstrates, some social identities are devalued in various contexts, including the workplace (e.g., Button, 2001; Crocker, Major, & Steele, 1998). As a result, social identities can negatively affect professional image. Women, for example, are often stereotyped as emotional and nurturing, characteristics believed to be incompatible with effective leadership (e.g., Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011; Nelson & Quick, 1985). As a group, African Americans have We would like to acknowledge the helpful comments of our associate editor, Joyce Bono, and three anonymous reviewers. We would like to thank the following people for their insights on previous versions of the manuscript: Danielle Dunne, Don Kluemper, and Hans Hansen. We would also like to thank Robert Vandenberg for his help with the means and covariance structure analyses. An earlier version of this paper was present...

Retaining professionally employed new mothers: The importance of maternal confidence and workplace support to their intent to stay

“…However, in referring to the literature, we could not find studies that linked maternal confidence to career experiences or outcomes. Rather, the existing literature on professionals becoming mothers has tended to focus on the impact of work on parenting identity (Ladge et al, ; Ladge & Greenberg, ), disclosure of pregnancy and impression management (Little et al, ), and breastfeeding and privacy challenges in the workplace (Gatrell, , ). Therefore, given the apparent gap in the literature, we decided to further investigate how maternal confidence affects professionally employed new mothers’ experiences in returning to work and their career decisions.…”

“…Some women feel pressure not to talk about their new baby or motherhood at work (Gatrell, ) and perceive biases and disapproval from their organization, which triggers insecurities about their roles as mothers and professionals (Ladge & Greenberg, ). Research suggests that feelings of insecurity as a parent and questions about one's identity begin during pregnancy (Hennekam, ; Ladge, Clair, & Greenberg, ; Little, Major, Hinojosa, & Nelson, ) and intensify through maternity leave and reentry (Buzzanell et al, ; Ladge & Greenberg, ), suggesting that a new mother's ability to gain confidence in her parenting role may be a key factor in her decision to leave or stay with her organization. As they return to work and start to navigate their career as a working mother, they may therefore begin to ask themselves, “Am I a good mother?” This question reflects a mother's maternal confidence, which we define as a mother's perception of her ability to care for and meet the needs of her child.…”

Make Them Feel: How the Disclosure of Pregnancy to a Supervisor Leads to Changes in Perceived Supervisor Support

“…For personal use only, all rights reserved. Little, Hinojosa, andLynch: Pregnancy Disclosure andChanges in PSS Organization Science, 2017, vol. 28, no.…”

“…Our results suggest that pregnant women may expect their supervisors to have concerns about how their job performance will be affected by their pregnancy. Research suggests that women are mindful of the impact their pregnancy can have on those with whom they work and on their professional image (Ladge et al 2012, Little et al 2015. Expressing concerns about performance should neither be discouraged nor encouraged, as it had no influence on perceived informational justice.…”

“…Although normally regarded as joyous news in other life domains, a pregnancy disclosure may generate mixed reactions from colleagues in the workplace. Pregnancy has been very publically labeled an "inconvenience" for employers (Vitali 2016) and studies have found that the majority of pregnant workers fear that others will view them as less competent than before the pregnancy (Little et al 2015). A supervisor's reaction is particularly important, as supervisors affect many aspects of the work experience of pregnant employees.…”