Foam nest in Scinax rizibilis (Amphibia: Anura: Hylidae)

A phylogenetic analysis of Pleurodema (Anura: Leptodactylidae: Leiuperinae) based on mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences, with comments on the evolution of anuran foam nests

“…Foam nests in anurans are produced by the whipping of oviductal secretions by one or both parents. Although some progress in the biochemical characterization of these secretions (Cooper et al., 2005; McMahon et al., 2006; Hissa et al., 2008; Fleming et al., 2009; Mackenzie et al., 2009) and in the anatomy and histochemistry of the secreting section of the oviduct (Coe, 1974; Kabisch et al., 1998; Alcaide et al., 2009; Furness et al., 2010) is slowly starting to take place, most studies have focused on the mechanics of foam production by the amplectic couple (Tyler and Davies, 1979; Hödl, 1986, 1990, 1992; Schlüter, 1990; Williams and Tyler, 1994; Altig and McDiarmid, 2007; Bastos et al., 2010; Dalgetty and Kennedy, 2010).…”

“…(2006), with the modifications in hyloid relationships by Grant et al. (2006) and Pyron and Wiens (2011): Hylidae (a single population of Scinax rizibilis ; Haddad et al., 1990; Bastos et al., 2010), Hyperoliidae ( Opisthothylax ; Amiet, 1974, 1991), Leiuperinae (all genera but Pseudopaludicola ), Leptodactylinae ( Leptodactylus sensu Frost et al., 2006; Heyer, 1969, 1973), Limnodynastidae ( Adelotus , Heleioporus , Lechriodus , Limnodynastes , Philoria and Platyplectrum ; Martin, 1967; Tyler and Davies, 1979), Microhylidae ( Stumpffia ; Glaw and Vences, 1994, 2007) and Rhacophoridae ( Chiromantis , Polypedates and Rhacophorus ; Wilkinson et al., 2002; Grosjean et al., 2008; Li et al., 2009). The peculiar aquatic bubble nest of the microhylid Chiasmocleis leucosticta (Haddad and Hödl, 1997) deserves more study in order to understand if it could be considered a variation of foam nest; in the meantime we do not consider it as such.…”

“…Foam nest building in the hylid S. rizibilis occurs in a unique way. The female jumps over the eggs that are imbedded in the oviductal secretion; the impact of the body against the clutch allows the retention of air bubbles in the secretion, forming the foam nest after repeated jumps (Haddad and Hödl, 1997; Bastos et al., 2010). The clutch is laid on the surface of ponds (Pombal, 1997; Bastos et al., 2010), as occurs in the species with which S. rizibilis is most closely related, S. aromothyella and S. berthae (Barrio, 1962; Faivovich, 2005), in the phylogenetic analysis of Faivovich (2002), suggesting that, if anything, foam‐nesting evolved from clutches laid in ponds.…”

Build me up to break me down: Frothed spawn in the sandpaper frog,Lechriodus fletcheri, is formed by female parents and later broken down by their offspring

“…While a majority of the L. fletcheri spawn body is aerated, the base is composed of un-frothed secretions. Unlike species that produce foam spawn in which secretions are physically whipped (Heyer and Rand 1977;Bastos et al 2010), L fletcheri females transport air bubbles into the growing spawn from underneath to produce bubble spawn. This lack of disturbance to the spawn body itself may cause air bubbles to gradually rise to the top of the structure, causing the base to remain un-frothed, although further investigation of this is required.…”

“…For example, spawn production may be aquatic or terrestrial, with frothing of precursor fluid facilitated by one or both parents, resulting in the production of spawn composed of either small or large bubbles. Mucous secretions may be physically whipped by movement of the adult's legs or by pairs jumping onto the spawn to produce foam spawn (Heyer and Rand 1977;Bastos et al 2010), or aerated by the transport of air bubbles by movement of the adult's legs or via release through the nostrils of pairs to form bubble spawn (Tyler 1989;Hödl and Haddad 1997). Given the inclusion of air, the frothed spawn body will float on the surface of the water through some or all stages of embryo development.…”