“…It has been known that PM can modulate the level of cytokines, upon its exposure to the humans airways ( Bengalli et al., 2013 ; Hirota et al., 2015 ; Tang et al., 2019 ). PM were also reported to be associated with the virus infections such as Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) ( Karr et al., 2009 ; Vandini et al., 2013 ), Influenza virus, Dengue virus ( Carneiro et al., 2017 ), Measles virus ( Chen et al., 2017a ; Peng et al., 2020 ) and Rhinovirus ( Proud et al., 2012 ). PM concentration has been shown to be linked with the increased number of infection rates in most of the virus-related outbreaks in the past two decades caused by RNA viruses, such as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) – CoV in 2003 ( Cui et al., 2003 ), Dengue outbreak ( Massad et al., 2010 ), Swine flu H1N1 (Influenza) pandemic in 2009 ( Morales et al., 2017 ), H5N2 Influenza outbreak in United States (US), ( Zhao et al., 2019 ), Measles outbreak in 2019 ( Peng et al., 2020 ) and the recent ongoing COVID-19 outbreak ( Conticini et al., 2020 ; Dutheil et al., 2020b ; Fattorini and Regoli, 2020 ; Sciomer et al., 2020 ; Setti et al., 2020a ; Zhu et al., 2020 ).…”