Ginseng: potential for the antileishmanial arsenal?

Abstract

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) develops after inoculation of the skin with parasites of the genus Leishmania, transmitted by phlebotomines (sandflies). Every year, CL affects approximately 1-1.5 million people worldwide, with over 90% of the cases occurring in the Middle East and South America. 1 CL is regarded as a parasitic disease caused by Leishmania and no optimal medication protocol is available for this skin infection. Beneficial treatment regimens for CL should be based on experience, efficiency and the toxicity of the drugs in each region. Importantly, it has been clarified that protective immunity against CL is related to induction of Th1/Tc1 immune response, which leads to efficient parasite elimination.3 Interleukin (IL)-12is unanimously believed to be a pivotal cytokine for induction of Th1/Tc1-dependent protection against Leishmania. 4 Moreover, activated macrophages are the major source of IL-12, which stimulates autocrine macrophage activation. 5One important point needing attention is that the polyamine biosynthetic pathway is fundamental for the growth and survival of Leishmania. Ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) is the first enzyme in the polyamine biosynthetic pathway. 6 Additionally, it has been recognized that ODC catalyzes the conversion of ornithine to putrescine 7 and that the levels of putrescine are elevated in cases of resistant leishmaniasis. 8It has been revealed that P-glycoproteins mediate drug resistance to Leishmania and other protozoa and that this is followed by development of cross-resistance to numerous structurally and functionally unrelated drugs. 9Leishmania parasites are obligate intracellular organisms in mammals, and they invade macrophages and dendritic cells. Notably, it has been demonstrated that nitric oxides produced in macrophages possess a crucial role as leishmanicidal agents. 10Ginseng (Panax ginseng) has been used for thousands of years in phytomedicine and it has captured a specific position on the list of the best-selling herbal agents in the world. 11 Ginseng modulates blood pressure, metabolism and immune functions. 12Interestingly, ginsenosides, which are the major active component of ginseng, have a range of biomedical effects. 13 They are triterpene saponins, and most ginsenosides are composed of a dammarane skeleton (17 carbons in a four-ring structure) with various sugar moieties. 12It is noteworthy that ginseng therapy has been shown to stimulate a Th1-like immune response, which improves the course of diseases in animal models. 14 Importantly, ginseng modulates the peripheral blood mononuclear cells and leads to higher IL-12 production. Additionally, elevated IL-12 levels can induce a more potent Th1 immune response. 15IH-901, a new intestinal bacterial metabolite extracted from protopanaxadiol-type ginsenosides, has been observed to suppress ornithine decarboxylase activity dose-dependently in animal skin. 16Protein-arginine N-methyltransferase (protein methylase I) catalyzes methylation of arginyl residues on substrate protein post-translationally. ...

Skin Wound Healing and Phytomedicine: A Review

“…The term ‘ginseng' generally refers to Panax ginseng and it is regarded in a high position on the list of the best-selling medical herbs in the world [26,27,28]. Kimura et al [29] reported that ginsenosides (the main active ingredients of ginseng) exhibited the potential for healing burn wounds when intravenously infused into rats.…”