New insights on the development of fungal vaccines: from immunity to recent challenges

Abstract

Fungal infections are emerging as a major problem in part due to high mortality associated with systemic infections, especially in the case of immunocompromised patients. With the development of new treatments for diseases such as cancer and the acquired immune deficiency syndrome pandemic, the number of immunosuppressed patients has increased and, as a consequence, also the number of invasive fungal infections has increased. Several studies have proposed new strategies for the development of effective fungal vaccines. In addition, better understanding of how the immune system works against fungal pathogens has improved the further development of these new vaccination strategies. As a result, some fungal vaccines have advanced through clinical trials. However, there are still many challenges that prevent the clinical development of fungal vaccines that can efficiently immunise subjects at risk of developing invasive fungal infections. In this review, we will discuss these new vaccination strategies and the challenges that they present. In the future with proper investments, fungal vaccines may soon become a reality.

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“…thiodicarb, fipronil, thiamethoxam, tebufenozide, methomyl, lambda, etc. which are more specific in action and friendly to human and environment [28].…”

“…To achieve better results, instructions on chemical to water ratios should be followed accordingly. While most of chemicals can be used in contact treatment, others may also be used in fumigation methods [28]. However, the physical control method might not always be used as conventional [28].…”

Promising immunotherapy against fungal diseases

“…Severity and pattern of fungal diseases are usually directed by the interplay of the pathogen and host immunity. Hence, host susceptibility is determined by the activity of cell-and humoral-mediated immunity [2]; in immunocompetent patients disease manifestation is linked to an excessed, in immunocompromised individuals to lack of adequate host response [3]. For successful infection, fungi adapt to hosts stressors and evade hosts' immunity; any failure to restore host immunity leads to worse outcome.…”

“…Modulating host response may be associated with moderate success because of the onset of toxicity, inherent or acquired resistance, excessive immune response and inflammation, or pathogen replacement [3]. Pathogen-modulating interventions may benefit from the fact that monoclonal antibodies (mAb) specifically target antigens; however, the induction of anti-mAB may raise unknown pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic principles thereby limiting their usage [3].…”

“…Pathogen-modulating interventions may benefit from the fact that monoclonal antibodies (mAb) specifically target antigens; however, the induction of anti-mAB may raise unknown pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic principles thereby limiting their usage [3]. The range of targets here is a broad one and runs from mAbs to synthetic antimicrobial peptides, signal transduction inhibitors, biological agents that may neutralize fungal pathogens by opsonizing directly and/or engaging the complement system, blocking their binding to cells, arresting their growth, or killing them altogether.…”