10. Anatomies of Conflict: Social Mobilization and New Political Ecologies of the Andes

Mapping terrains of struggle: State space and the spatiality of oil mobilisation in Ecuador and Peru

“…This 'common sense' position also entails a growing intolerance to social resistance against extractive projects through the increasing use of repressive measures, the criminalisation of protests and the prosecution of leaders of resistance movements Bebbington et al, 2013b;Kohl & Farthing, 2012;Middeldorp et al, 2016;. The tendency to focus on the Pink Tide governments in extractivism research has entailed a strong emphasis on the role of the state.…”

“…In addition to the negative externalities from production, local populations also experience the negative effects of land-use changes. Zoning land for hydrocarbon or mining activity and granting concessions for hydrocarbon and mineral exploration lead to uncertainty and instability for those depending on the surface for their livelihoods and culture (Bebbington et al, 2013b). As the extractive frontier is expanded to include more ecologically and socially sensitive areas, extractive activity competes with local agricultural livelihood strategies and practices through the use of local resources, such as water and land.…”

“…Concessions for hydrocarbon and mineral exploration lead to shifting land markets and price increases as concession holders create subsidiary companies to buy land for exploration. Bebbington et al (2013b) found in the case of mining projects in Cajamarca, Peru, that local populations have lost access to pastures and agricultural land, resulting in the intensification of remaining land and migration. A main concern when local populations discover that concessions for hydrocarbon or mineral exploration have been granted is the potential or actual loss of water, both in terms of a decline in quality and a reduction in availability.…”

“…Extractivism can therefore not only lead to the dispossession of land and water resources, but also to the end of a way of life and ultimately the survival of culture and traditions. These processes of dispossession are characterised by poor communication between local populations, companies and the state (Bebbington et al, 2013b).…”

“…, and found in case studies of mining projects in Peru and Chile that local employment opportunities in particular have been demanded. Extractive industries are capital-intensive rather than labour-intensive industries (Bebbington et al, 2013b). However, these case studies found that companies recruit locally for low-paid and low-skilled jobs to gain social licences from local communities.…”