1. Making Religion, Making the State in Modern China: An Introductory Essay

Economy of Shadows: The Effects of Restrictive Regulation on Religiosity in China

“…After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the CCP established laws to regulate the religious marketplace. The Party gave official recognition and rights of practice to five religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Protestantism, Catholicism, and Islam (Ashiwa and Wank 2009; Yang 2006). It also instituted “patriotic” associations, government‐controlled organizations empowered to guide the permitted religions (Yang 2006).…”

“…It remained largely a spontaneous and noninstitutional movement until the founding of the Republic of China in 1912. As part of a broader push to build a modern state, political leaders and elites sought to institutionalize and modernize religion (Ashiwa and Wank 2009). It was at this time that a campaign was initiated by activist monks to purge superstitious elements from religious practice (Leamaster and Hu 2014).…”

“…The Chinese government permits the practice of five religions: Buddhism, Taoism, Protestantism, Catholicism, and Islam (Ashiwa and Wank 2009; Yang 2006). Legitimate practice is defined by the state, which maintains a regulatory system to guide the official religions.…”

Religious Commodities or Cultural Elements?

“…However, state policies are intended to control the influence of Buddhism and use it for the state's objectives (Laliberté 2011). Buddhism can also be perceived as an element of "soft power" used by the state in internal affairs, as well as a cultural resource used in external politics (Ji 2012;Ashiwa and Wank 2009, 2020a, 2020bLaliberté 2019Laliberté , 2020. The ccp's current approach is not only to use Buddhism for its means and agenda but also to give the religion a more strategic role in society.…”

“…The ccp's current approach is not only to use Buddhism for its means and agenda but also to give the religion a more strategic role in society. People's response to the attitude, regulations, and demands of the Buddhist Association of China (bac, Zhongguo fojiao xiehui 中国佛教协会), which is monopolized by the ccp, is not necessarily rejection or disgruntled obedience (Ashiwa and Wank 2009). Different religious institutions hold different objectives, meaning that the state-religion interaction is not inherently antagonistic.…”