Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) is critical in the regulation of vascular function, and can generate both nitric oxide (NO) and superoxide (O2•−), which are key mediators of cellular signalling. In the presence of Ca2+/calmodulin, eNOS produces NO, endothelial-derived relaxing factor, from L-arginine (L-Arg) by means of electron transfer from NADPH through a flavin containing reductase domain to oxygen bound at the haem of an oxygenase domain, which also contains binding sites for tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) and L-Arg1–3. In the absence of BH4, NO synthesis is abrogated and instead O2•− is generated4–7. While NOS dysfunction occurs in diseases with redox stress, BH4 repletion only partly restores NOS activity and NOS-dependent vasodilation7. This suggests that there is an as yet unidentified redox-regulated mechanism controlling NOS function. Protein thiols can undergo S-glutathionylation, a reversible protein modification involved in cellular signalling and adaptation8,9. Under oxidative stress, S-glutathionylation occurs through thiol–disulphide exchange with oxidized glutathione or reaction of oxidant-induced protein thiyl radicals with reduced glutathione10,11. Cysteine residues are critical for the maintenance of eNOS function12,13; we therefore speculated that oxidative stress could alter eNOS activity through S-glutathionylation. Here we show that S-glutathionylation of eNOS reversibly decreases NOS activity with an increase in O2•− generation primarily from the reductase, in which two highly conserved cysteine residues are identified as sites of S-glutathionylation and found to be critical for redox-regulation of eNOS function. We show that eNOS S-glutathionylation in endothelial cells, with loss of NO and gain of O2•− generation, is associated with impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation. In hypertensive vessels, eNOS S-glutathionylation is increased with impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation that is restored by thiol-specific reducing agents, which reverse this S-glutathionylation. Thus, S-glutathionylation of eNOS is a pivotal switch providing redox regulation of cellular signalling, endothelial function and vascular tone.

Mitochondrial ROS have emerged as an important mechanism of disease and redox signaling in the cardiovascular system. Under basal or pathological conditions, electron leakage for ROS production is primarily mediated by the electron transport chain and proton motive force consisting of a membrane potential (ΔΨ) and a proton gradient (ΔpH). Several factors controlling ROS production in mitochondria include FMN and the FMN-binding domain of complex I, ubisemiquinone and quinone-binding domain of complex I, FAD binding moiety and quinone-binding pocket (Qp) of complex II, and unstable semiquinone •Qo− mediated by the Q cycle of complex III. In mitochondrial complex I, specific cysteinyl redox domains modulate ROS production from the FMN moiety and iron sulfur clusters. In the cardiovascular system, mitochondrial ROS have been linked to mediating physiological effects of metabolic dilation and preconditioning-like mKATP channel activation. Furthermore, oxidative post-translational modification by glutathione in complex I and complex II has been shown to affect enzymatic catalysis, protein-protein interactions, and enzyme-mediated ROS production. Conditions associated with oxidative or nitrosative stress, such as myocardial ischemia and reperfusion, increase mitochondrial ROS production via oxidative injury of complexes I and II, and •O2−-induced hydroxyl radical production by aconitase. Further insight into cellular mechanisms by which specific redox post-translational modifications regulate ROS production in mitochondria will enrich our understanding of redox signal transduction and identify new therapeutic targets for cardiovascular diseases in which oxidative stress perturbs normal redox signaling.

Reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species are biological molecules that play important roles in cardiovascular physiology and contribute to disease initiation, progression, and severity. Because of their ephemeral nature and rapid reactivity, these species are difficult to measure directly with high accuracy and precision. In this statement, we review current methods for measuring these species and the secondary products they generate and suggest approaches for measuring redox status, oxidative stress, and the production of individual reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. We discuss the strengths and limitations of different methods and the relative specificity and suitability of these methods for measuring the concentrations of reactive oxygen and reactive nitrogen species in cells, tissues, and biological fluids. We provide specific guidelines, through expert opinion, for choosing reliable and reproducible assays for different experimental and clinical situations. These guidelines are intended to help investigators and clinical researchers avoid experimental error and ensure high-quality measurements of these important biological species.