Influenza during pregnancy is associated with the development of psychopathology in the offspring. We sought to determine whether maternal cytokines produced following administration of viral mimetic polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (polyI:C) to pregnant rats were predictive of behavioral abnormalities in the adult offspring. Timed-pregnant Sprague Dawley rats received a single intravenous injection of 4-mg/kg polyI:C or saline on gestational day (GD)15. Blood was collected 3 h later for serum analysis of cytokine levels with ELISA. Male offspring were tested in a battery of behavioral tests during adulthood and behavior was correlated with maternal cytokine levels. Maternal serum levels of CXCL1 and interleukin (IL)-6, but not tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α or CXCL2, were elevated in polyI:C-treated dams. PolyI:C-treated dams experienced post-treatment weight loss and polyI:C pups were smaller than controls at postnatal day (PND)1. Various behavior alterations were seen in the polyI:C-treated offspring. Male polyI:C offspring had enhanced MK-801-induced locomotion, and reduced sociability. PolyI:C offspring failed to display crossmodal and visual memory, and oddity preference was also impaired. Set-shifting, assessed with a lever-based operant conditioning task, was facilitated while touchscreen-based reversal learning was impaired. Correlations were found between maternal serum concentrations of CXCL1, acute maternal temperature and body weight changes, neonatal pup mass, and odd object discrimination and social behavior. Overall, while the offspring of polyI:C-treated rats displayed behavior abnormalities, maternal serum cytokines were not related to the long-term behavior changes in the offspring. Maternal sickness effects and neonatal pup size may be better indicators of later effects of maternal inflammation in the offspring.

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Behavioural, neurological, and genetic similarities exist in epilepsies, their psychiatric comorbidities, and various psychiatric illnesses, suggesting common aetiological factors. Rodent models of epilepsy are used to characterize the comorbid symptoms apparent in epilepsy and their neurobiological mechanisms. The present study was designed to assess Pavlovian fear conditioning and latent inhibition in a polygenetic rat model of absence epilepsy, i.e. Genetic Absence Epilepsy Rats from Strasbourg (GAERS) and the non-epileptic control (NEC) strain. Electrophysiological recordings confirmed the presence of spike-wave discharges in young adult GAERS but not NEC rats. A series of behavioural tests designed to assess anxiety-like behaviour (elevated plus maze, open field, acoustic startle response) and cognition (Pavlovian conditioning and latent inhibition) was subsequently conducted on male and female offspring. Results showed that GAERS exhibited significantly higher anxiety-like behaviour, a characteristic reported previously. In addition, using two protocols that differed in shock intensity, we found that both sexes of GAERS displayed exaggerated cued and contextual Pavlovian fear conditioning and impaired fear extinction. Fear reinstatement to the conditioned stimuli following unsignalled footshocks did not differ between the strains. Male GAERS also showed impaired latent inhibition in a paradigm using Pavlovian fear conditioning, suggesting that they may have altered attention, particularly related to previously irrelevant stimuli in the environment. Neither the female GAERS nor NEC rats showed evidence of latent inhibition in our paradigm. Together, the results suggest that GAERS may be a particularly useful model for assessing therapeutics designed to improve the emotional and cognitive disturbances associated with absence epilepsy.

The cognitive symptoms observed in schizophrenia are highly prevalent and predictive of patient functional outcome but are not usually alleviated by conventional antipsychotics. In a recent pilot study, sodium nitroprusside (SNP), a nitric oxide donor, was identified as a promising adjunct treatment to reduce the working memory impairments experienced by schizophrenia patients.Adjunctive SNP has also been reported to decrease the positive and negative symptoms experienced by patients for weeks following a single administration. The mechanisms underlying these changes and the areas of cognition affected remain largely unknown.Therefore, it is of interest to examine the effects of SNP using a rodent model of schizophrenia that has demonstrated predictive validity. The aim of the present experiment was to explore the effects of SNP on the acute MK-801 rodent model of schizophrenia using a highly translatable task in order to establish its validity. Working memory and pattern separation were measured using the trial-unique, delayed nonmatching-to-location (TUNL) task in touchscreen-equipped operant conditioning chambers. Acute MK-801 administration 25 minutes prior to task initiation impaired both areas of cognition. When SNP and MK-801 were administered within 5 minutes of each other, no interaction was observed. Interestingly, SNP improved performance on trials with difficult to discriminate patterns (p=0.058). Previous rodent studies using the ketamine model of schizophrenia and the novel object preference task observed a preventative effect of SNP administration. When we administered SNP nearly 4 hours prior to MK-801, no cognitive improvements were observed. Our results suggest that SNP may have intrinsic cognitive enhancing properties but is not capable of reducing MK-801-induced working memory and pattern separation impairments in the TUNL task. This study failed to mirror the results of the human pilot study that observed improved working memory following SNP administration.iii Further, it did not replicate previous animal studies using ketamine. Ultimately, the findings suggest that the effects of MK-801 in the TUNL task may not hold the predictive validity needed for its use in the study of SNP. In order to advance the understanding of SNP, future studies should investigate other translatable paradigms to establish validity. iv ACKNOWLDGEMENTSFirst and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. John Howland, for his guidance and encouragement over the past three years. He believed in my abilities before I had proven them to myself and pushed me to be the best scientist and student I could be. John has provided me with countless opportunities to grow as a researcher and selflessly helped me make decisions about my future. I would not be where I am today without him and will always be grateful to have had such an incredible mentor in my life.I would like to thank my committee members, Dr.

Sex differences are documented in psychiatric and neurological disorders, yet most preclinical animal research has been conducted in males only. There is a need to better understand of the nature of sex differences in brain disease in order to meet the needs of psychiatric patients. We present the behavior profile of adult female offspring produced using a maternal immune activation (MIA) model where pregnant rats receive an immune stimulant and the offspring typically show various abnormalities consistent with psychiatric illnesses such as schizophrenia and autism. The results in female offspring were compared to a previously published cohort of their male siblings ( Lins et al., 2018 ). We examined prepulse inhibition (PPI), sociability, MK-801-induced locomotor activity, crossmodal object recognition (CMOR), and oddity discrimination; behaviors relevant to the positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia. No between-treatment differences in PPI or locomotor activity were noted. Tactile memory was observed in the control and treated female offspring, visual recognition memory was deficient in the polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (polyI:C) offspring only, and both groups lacked crossmodal recognition. PolyI:C offspring were impaired in oddity preference and had reduced preference for a stranger conspecific in a sociability assay. Systemic maternal CXCL1, IL-6, and TNF-a levels 3 h after polyI:C treatment were determined, but no relationship was found between these cytokines and the behavior seen in the adult female offspring. Overall, female offspring of polyI:C-treated dams display an array of behavior abnormalities relevant to psychiatric illnesses such as schizophrenia similar to those previously reported in male rats.