In the present study, we investigated the role of the phytoestrogen genistein and 17beta-estradiol in human bone marrow stromal cells, undergoing induced osteogenic or adipogenic differentiation. Profiling of estrogen receptors (ERs)-alpha, -beta1, -beta2, -beta3, -beta4, -beta5, and aromatase mRNAs revealed lineage-dependent expression patterns. During osteogenic differentiation, the osteoblast-determining core binding factor-alpha1 showed a progressive increase, whereas the adipogenic regulator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) was sequentially decreased. This temporal regulation of lineage-determining marker genes was strongly enhanced by genistein during the early osteogenic phase. Moreover, genistein increased alkaline phosphatase mRNA levels and activity, the osteoprotegerin:receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB ligand gene expression ratio, and the expression of TGFbeta1. During adipogenic differentiation, down-regulation in the mRNA levels of PPARgamma and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein-alpha at d 3 and decreased lipoprotein lipase and adipsin mRNA levels at d 21 were observed after genistein treatment. This led to a lower number of adipocytes and a reduction in the size of their lipid droplets. At d 3 of adipogenesis, TGFbeta1 was strongly up-regulated by genistein in an ER-dependent manner. Blocking the TGFbeta1 pathway abolished the effects of genistein on PPARgamma protein levels and led to a reduction in the proliferation rate of precursor cells. Overall, genistein enhanced the commitment and differentiation of bone marrow stromal cells to the osteoblast lineage but did not influence the late osteogenic maturation markers. Adipogenic differentiation and maturation, on the other hand, were reduced by genistein (and 17beta-estradiol) via an ER-dependent mechanism involving autocrine or paracrine TGFbeta1 signaling.

Retinoic acid (RA) is a pleiotropic derivative of vitamin A, or retinol, which is responsible for all of the bioactivity associated with this vitamin. The teratogenic influences of vitamin A deficiency and excess RA in rodents were first observed more than 50 years ago. Efforts over the last 15-20 years have refined these observations by defining the molecular mechanisms that control RA availability and signaling during murine embryonic development. This review will discuss our current understanding of the role of RA in teratogenesis, with specific emphasis on the essential function of the RA catabolic CYP26 enzymes in preventing teratogenic consequences caused by uncontrolled distribution of RA. Particular focus will be paid to the RA-sensitive tissues of the caudal and cranial regions, the limb, and the testis, and how genetic mutation of factors controlling RA distribution have revealed important roles for RA during embryogenesis.

Congenital abnormalities of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT) account for approximately half of children with chronic kidney disease and they are the most frequent cause of end-stage renal disease in children in the US. However, its genetic etiology remains mostly elusive. VACTERL association is a rare disorder that involves congenital abnormalities in multiple organs including the kidney and urinary tract in up to 60% of the cases. By homozygosity mapping and whole exome resequencing combined with high-throughput mutation analysis by array-based multiplex PCR and next-generation sequencing, we identified recessive mutations in the gene TNF receptor-associated protein 1 (TRAP1) in two families with isolated CAKUT and three families with VACTERL association. TRAP1 is a heat shock protein 90-related mitochondrial chaperone possibly involved in antiapoptotic and endoplasmic reticulum-stress signaling. Trap1 is expressed in renal epithelia of developing mouse kidney E13.5 and in the kidney of adult rats, most prominently in proximal tubules and in thick medullary ascending limbs of Henle’s loop. Thus, we identified mutations in TRAP1 as highly likely causing CAKUT or CAKUT in VACTERL association.

Congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT) account for 40–50% of chronic kidney disease that manifests in the first two decades of life. Thus far, 31 monogenic causes of isolated CAKUT have been described, explaining ~12% of cases. To identify additional CAKUT-causing genes, we performed whole exome sequencing followed by a genetic burden analysis in 26 genetically unsolved families with CAKUT. We identified two heterozygous mutations in SRGAP1 in 2 unrelated families. SRGAP1 is a small GTPase activating protein in the SLIT2-ROBO2 signaling pathway, which is essential for development of the metanephric kidney. We then examined the pathway-derived candidate gene SLIT2 for mutations in cohort of 749 individuals with CAKUT and we identified 3 unrelated individuals with heterozygous mutations. The clinical phenotypes of individuals with mutations in SLIT2 or SRGAP1 were cystic dysplastic kidneys, unilateral renal agenesis, and duplicated collecting system. We show that SRGAP1 is expressed in early mouse nephrogenic mesenchyme and that it is coexpressed with ROBO2 in SIX2-positive nephron progenitor cells of the cap mesenchyme in developing rat kidney. We demonstrate that the newly identified mutations in SRGAP1 lead to an augmented inhibition of RAC1 in cultured human embryonic kidney cells and that the SLIT2 mutations compromise the ability of the SLIT2 ligand to inhibit cell migration. Thus, we report on two novel candidate genes for causing monogenic isolated CAKUT in humans.

The VATER/VACTERL association describes the combination of congenital anomalies including vertebral defects, anorectal malformations, cardiac defects, tracheoesophageal fistula with or without esophageal atresia, renal malformations, and limb defects. As mutations in ciliary genes were observed in diseases related to VATER/VACTERL, we performed targeted re-sequencing of 25 ciliary candidate genes as well as disease-associated genes (FOXF1, HOXD13, PTEN, ZIC3) in 123 patients with VATER/VACTERL or VATER/VACTERL-like phenotype. We detected no biallelic mutation in any of the 25 ciliary candidate genes however, identified an identical, probably disease-causing ZIC3 missense mutation (p.Gly17Cys) in four patients and a FOXF1 de novo mutation (p.Gly220Cys) in a further patient. In situ hybridization analyses in mouse embryos between E9.5 and E14.5 revealed Zic3 expression in limb and prevertebral structures, and Foxf1 expression in esophageal, tracheal, vertebral, anal, and genital tubercle tissues, hence VATER/VACTERL organ systems. These data provide strong evidence that mutations in ZIC3 or FOXF1 contribute to VATER/VACTERL.