This paper discusses the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods that separate net ecosystem exchange (NEE) into its major components, gross ecosystem carbon uptake (GEP) and ecosystem respiration (R-eco). In particular, we analyse the effect of the extrapolation of night-time values of ecosystem respiration into the daytime; this is usually done with a temperature response function that is derived from long-term data sets. For this analysis, we used 16 one-year-long data sets of carbon dioxide exchange measurements from European and US-American eddy covariance networks. These sites span from the boreal to Mediterranean climates, and include deciduous and evergreen forest, scrubland and crop ecosystems. long-term (annual) data sets, does not reflect the short-term temperature sensitivity that is effective when extrapolating from night- to daytime. Specifically, in summer active ecosystems the long-term temperature sensitivity exceeds the short-term sensitivity. Thus, in those ecosystems, the application of a long-term temperature sensitivity to the extrapolation of respiration from night to day leads to a systematic overestimation of ecosystem respiration from half-hourly to annual time-scales, which can reach > 25% for an annual budget and which consequently affects estimates of GEP. Conversely, in summer passive (Mediterranean) ecosystems, the long-term temperature sensitivity is lower than the short-term temperature sensitivity resulting in underestimation of annual sums of respiration. temperature sensitivity of R-eco from eddy covariance data that applies this to the extrapolation from night- to daytime, and that further performs a filling of data gaps that exploits both, the covariance between fluxes and meteorological drivers and the temporal structure of the fluxes. While this algorithm should give less biased estimates of GEP and R-eco, we discuss the remaining biases and recommend that eddy covariance measurements are still backed by ancillary flux measurements that can reduce the uncertainties inherent in the eddy covariance data. [References: 53

FLUXNET is a global network of micrometeorological flux measurement sites that measure the exchanges of carbon dioxide, water vapor, and energy between the biosphere and atmosphere. At present over 140 sites are operating on a long-term and continuous basis. Vegetation under study includes temperate conifer and broadleaved (deciduous and evergreen) forests, tropical and boreal forests, crops, grasslands, chaparral, wetlands, and tundra. Sites exist on five continents and their latitudinal distribution ranges from 70°N to 30°S. FLUXNET has several primary functions. First, it provides infrastructure for compiling, archiving, and distributing carbon, water, and energy flux measurement, and meteorological, plant, and soil data to the science community. (Data and site information are available online at the FLUXNET Web site, http://www-eosdis.ornl.gov/FLUXNET/.) Second, the project supports calibration and flux intercomparison activities. This activity ensures that data from the regional networks are intercomparable. And third, FLUXNET supports the synthesis, discussion, and communication of ideas and data by supporting project scientists, workshops, and visiting scientists. The overarching goal is to provide information for validating computations of net primary productivity, evaporation, and energy absorption that are being generated by sensors mounted on the NASA Terra satellite. Data being compiled by FLUXNET are being used to quantify and compare magnitudes and dynamics of annual ecosystem carbon and water balances, to quantify the response of stand-scale carbon dioxide and water vapor flux densities to controlling biotic and abiotic factors, and to validate a hierarchy of soil-plant-atmosphere trace gas exchange models. Findings so far include 1) net C0 2 exchange of temperate broadleaved forests increases by about 5.7 g C m~2 day-1 for each additional day that the growing season is extended; 2) the sensitivity of net ecosystem C0 2 exchange to sunlight doubles if the sky is cloudy rather than clear; 3) the spectrum of C0 2 flux density exhibits peaks at timescales of days, weeks, and years, and a spectral gap exists at the month timescale; 4) the optimal temperature of net C0 2 exchange varies with mean summer temperature; and 5) stand age affects carbon dioxide and water vapor flux densities.

A comprehensive evaluation of energy balance closure is performed across 22 sites and 50 site-years in FLUXNET, a network of eddy covariance sites measuring long-term carbon and energy fluxes in contrasting ecosystems and climates. Energy balance closure was evaluated by statistical regression of turbulent energy fluxes (sensible and latent heat (LE)) against available energy (net radiation, less the energy stored) and by solving for the energy balance ratio, the ratio of turbulent energy fluxes to available energy. These methods indicate a general lack of closure at most sites, with a mean imbalance in the order of 20%. The imbalance was prevalent in all measured vegetation types and in climates ranging from Mediterranean to temperate and arctic. There were no clear differences between sites using open and closed path infrared gas analyzers. At a majority of sites closure improved with turbulent intensity (friction velocity), but lack of total closure was still prevalent under most conditions. The imbalance was greatest during nocturnal periods. The results suggest that estimates of the scalar turbulent fluxes of sensible and LE are underestimated and/or that available energy is overestimated. The implications on interpreting long-term CO 2 fluxes at FLUXNET sites depends on whether the imbalance results primarily from general errors associated * Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-510-642-2874; fax: +1-510-643-5098. E-mail address: baldocchi@nature.berkeley.edu (D. Baldocchi).0168-1923/02/$ -see front matter. Published by Elsevier Science B.V. PII: S 0 1 6 8 -1 9 2 3 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 0 9 -0 224 K. Wilson et al. / Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 113 (2002) with the eddy covariance technique or from errors in calculating the available energy terms. Although it was not entirely possible to critically evaluate all the possible sources of the imbalance, circumstantial evidence suggested a link between the imbalance and CO 2 fluxes. For a given value of photosynthetically active radiation, the magnitude of CO 2 uptake was less when the energy imbalance was greater. Similarly, respiration (estimated by nocturnal CO 2 release to the atmosphere) was significantly less when the energy imbalance was greater. Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

Heightened awareness of global change issues within both science and political communities has increased interest in using the global network of eddy covariance flux towers to more fully understand the impacts of natural and anthropogenic phenomena on the global carbon balance. Comparisons of net ecosystem exchange (F NEE ) responses are being made among biome types, phenology patterns, and stress conditions. The comparisons are usually performed on annual sums of F NEE ; however, the average data coverage during a year is only 65%. Therefore, robust and consistent gap filling methods are required.We review several methods of gap filling and apply them to data sets available from the EUROFLUX and AmeriFlux databases. The methods are based on mean diurnal variation (MDV), look-up tables (LookUp), and nonlinear regressions (Regr.), and the impact of different gap filling methods on the annual sum of F NEE is investigated. The difference between annual F NEE filled by MDV compared to F NEE filled by Regr. ranged from −45 to +200 g C m −2 per year (MDV−Regr.). Comparing LookUp and Regr. methods resulted in a difference (LookUp−Regr.) ranging from −30 to +150 g C m −2 per year.We also investigated the impact of replacing measurements at night, when turbulent mixing is insufficient. The nighttime correction for low friction velocities (u * ) shifted annual F NEE on average by +77 g C m −2 per year, but in certain cases as much as +185 g C m −2 per year.Our results emphasize the need to standardize gap filling-methods for improving the comparability of flux data products from regional and global flux networks.

Twine, T. E.; Kustas, W. P.; Norman, J. M.; Cook, D. R.; Houser, P. R.; Meyers, T. P.; Prueger, J. H.; Starks, P. J.; and Wesley, M. L., "Correcting eddy-covariance flux underestimates over a grassland" (2000). AbstractIndependent measurements of the major energy balance flux components are not often consistent with the principle of conservation of energy. This is referred to as a lack of closure of the surface energy balance. Most results in the literature have shown the sum of sensible and latent heat fluxes measured by eddy covariance to be less than the difference between net radiation and soil heat fluxes. This under-measurement of sensible and latent heat fluxes by eddy-covariance instruments has occurred in numerous field experiments and among many different manufacturers of instruments. Four eddy-covariance systems consisting of the same models of instruments were set up side-by-side during the Southern Great Plains 1997 Hydrology Experiment and all systems under-measured fluxes by similar amounts. One of these eddy-covariance systems was collocated with three other types of eddy-covariance systems at different sites; all of these systems under-measured the sensible and latent-heat fluxes. The net radiometers and soil heat flux plates used in conjunction with the eddy-covariance systems were calibrated independently and measurements of net radiation and soil heat flux showed little scatter for various sites. The 10% absolute uncertainty in available energy measurements was considerably smaller than the systematic closure problem in the surface energy budget, which varied from 10 to 30%. When available-energy measurement errors are known and modest, eddy-covariance measurements of sensible and latent heat fluxes should be adjusted for closure. Although the preferred method of energy balance closure is to maintain the Bowen-ratio, the method for obtaining closure appears to be less important than assuring that eddy-covariance measurements are consistent with conservation of energy. Based on numerous measurements over a sorghum canopy, carbon dioxide fluxes, which are measured by eddy covariance, are underestimated by the same factor as eddy covariance evaporation measurements when energy balance closure is not achieved. Published by Elsevier Science B.V.