IntroductionAcute myeloid leukemia (AML) and myelodysplastic syndromes (MDSs) are heterogeneous neoplastic diseases, and most subtypes have poor clinical outcomes. Despite the established use of poly-chemotherapy and the development of new agents that transiently reduce the tumor burden, relapse or failure to achieve durable remission continues to be the most common causes of death in most subtypes of AML and MDS. Recent experimental evidence suggests that AML arises from transformed immature hematopoietic cells after the accumulation of multiple stepwise genetic and epigenetic changes in hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and committed progenitors. 1 The series of transforming events are thought to initially give rise to preleukemia stem cells (pre-LSCs), preceding the formation of fully transformed LSCs. Defining the characteristics of LSCs, and also of pre-LSCs, is critical to understanding the genesis of leukemia and to developing strategies by which these cells can be eradicated. AML is characterized by a cellular heterogeneous tumor bulk, with LSCs at the top of the hierarchy and a differentiation block at various stages during myeloid maturation. 2 To address the problem of cellular heterogeneity within the tumor and to identify relevant molecular pathways effective in LSCs and pre-LSCs, novel experimental approaches other than the examination of bulk tumor cells need to be established. Recent findings have suggested that human LSCs are contained within different phenotypic compartments and at relatively low frequencies. [3][4][5] Several surface molecules were reported to permit enrichment of LSCs in AML. 4,[6][7][8][9][10][11] However, reliable markers for human LSCs at the single-cell level have yet to be identified; and because of the challenges associated with the use of xenograft models, the search for such markers remains difficult. Moreover, although there is clear evidence for the involvement of HSCs in AML pathogenesis, studies from murine models suggest that fully transformed and transplantable LSCs may reside at a committed progenitor stage. 12-15 Here we applied a novel approach of parallel transcriptional analysis of multiple, highly fractionated stem and progenitor populations in individual patients. We isolated phenotypic long-term HSCs (LT-HSCs), short-term HSCs (ST-HSCs), The online version of this article contains a data supplement.The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. Therefore, and solely to indicate this fact, this article is hereby marked ''advertisement'' in accordance with 18 USC section 1734. For personal use only. on May 11, 2018. by guest www.bloodjournal.org From and committed granulocyte-monocyte progenitors (GMP) from individual patients with AML, and compared gene expression profiles of each population with their phenotypic counterparts from age-matched healthy controls (HCs). Subsequent intersection of differentially expressed genes in the different cellular compartments allowed us to identify candidate genes that are consistently...

The tumor suppressor p53 is often inactivated via its interaction with endogenous inhibitors mouse double minute 4 homolog (MDM4 or MDMX) or mouse double minute 2 homolog (MDM2), which are frequently overexpressed in patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and other cancers. Pharmacological disruption of both of these inter-actions has long been sought after as an attractive strategy to fully restore p53-dependent tumor suppressor activity in cancers with wild-type p53. Selective targeting of this pathway has thus far been limited to MDM2-only small-molecule inhibitors, which lack affinity for MDMX. We demonstrate that dual MDMX/MDM2 inhibition with a stapled a-helical peptide (ALRN-6924), which has recently entered phase I clinical testing, produces marked antileukemic effects. ALRN-6924 robustly activates p53-dependent transcription at the single-cell and single-molecule levels and exhibits biochemical and molecular biological on-target activity in leukemia cells in vitro and in vivo. Dual MDMX/MDM2 inhibition by ALRN-6924 inhibits cellular proliferation by inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in cell lines and primary AML patient cells, including leukemic stem cell-enriched populations, and disrupts functional clonogenic and serial replating capacity. Furthermore, ALRN-6924 markedly improves survival in AML xenograft models. Our study provides mechanistic insight to support further testing of ALRN-6924 as a therapeutic approach in AML and other cancers with wild-type p53.

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MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play important roles during development and also in adult organisms by regulating the expression of multiple target genes. Here, we studied the function of miR-133b during zebrafish spinal cord regeneration and show upregulation of miR-133b expression in regenerating neurons of the brainstem after transection of the spinal cord. miR-133b has been shown to promote tissue regeneration in other tissue, but its ability to do so in the nervous system has yet to be tested. Inhibition of miR-133b expression by anti-sense morpholino (MO) application resulted in impaired locomotor recovery and reduced regeneration of axons from neurons in the NMLF (nucleus of the medial longitudinal fascicle), SRF (superior reticular formation), and IMRF (intermediate reticular formation). miR-133b targets the small GTPase RhoA, which is an inhibitor of axonal growth, as well as other neurite outgrowth-related molecules. Our results indicate that miR-133b is an important determinant in spinal cord regeneration of adult zebrafish through reduction of RhoA protein levels by direct interaction with its mRNA. While RhoA has been studied as a therapeutic target in spinal cord injury, this is the first demonstration of endogenous regulation of RhoA by a microRNA that is required for spinal cord regeneration in zebrafish. The ability of miR-133b to suppress molecules that inhibit axon regrowth may underlie the capacity for adult zebrafish to recover locomotor function after spinal cord injury (SCI).

Modest transcriptional changes caused by genetic or epigenetic mechanisms are frequent in human cancer. Although loss or near-complete loss of the hematopoietic transcription factor PU.1 induces acute myeloid leukemia (AML) in mice, a similar degree of PU.1 impairment is exceedingly rare in human AML; yet moderate PU.1 inhibition is common in AML patients. We assessed functional consequences of modest reduction of PU.1 expression on leukemia development in mice harboring DNA lesions resembling those acquired during human stem cell aging. Heterozygous deletion of an enhancer of PU.1, which resulted in 35% reduction of PU.1 expression, was sufficient to induce myeloid biased preleukemic stem cells and subsequent transformation to AML in a DNA mismatch repair-deficient background. AML progression was mediated by inhibition of expression of a PU.1 cooperating transcription factor, Irf8. Strikingly, we found significant molecular similarities with human myelodysplastic syndrome and AML. This study demonstrates that minimal reduction of a key lineage-specific transcription factor that commonly occurs in human disease is sufficient to initiate cancer development and provides mechanistic insight into the formation and progression of preleukemic stem cells in AML.