The elongation cycle of protein synthesis involves the delivery of aminoacyl-tRNAs to the A-site of the ribosome, followed by peptide-bond formation and translocation of the tRNAs through the ribosome to reopen the A-site1,2. The translocation reaction is catalyzed by elongation factor G (EF-G) in a GTP-dependent fashion3. Despite the availability of structures of various EF-G-ribosome complexes, the precise mechanism by which tRNAs move through the ribosome still remains unclear. Here we use multiparticle cryo-EM analysis to resolve two previously unseen subpopulations within EF-G-ribosome complexes at sub-nanometer resolution, one of them with a partially translocated tRNA. Comparison of these sub-states reveals that translocation of tRNA on the 30S subunit parallels the swiveling of the 30S-head and is coupled to un-ratcheting of the 30S-body. Since the tRNA maintains contact with the P-site on the 30S-head and simultaneously establishes interaction with the E-site on the 30S-platform, a novel intra-subunit pe/E hybrid state is formed. This state is stabilized by domain IV of EF-G, which interacts with the swiveled 30S-head conformation. These findings provide direct structural and mechanistic insight into the “missing link” in terms of tRNA intermediates involved in the universally conserved translocation process.

Expression of the Escherichia coli tryptophanase operon depends upon ribosome stalling during translation of the upstream TnaC leader peptide, a process for which interactions between the TnaC nascent chain and the ribosomal exit tunnel are critical. We determined a 5.8 Å resolution cryo-electron microscopy and single particle reconstruction of a ribosome stalled during translation of the tnaC leader gene. The nascent chain was extended within the exit tunnel, making contacts with ribosomal components at distinct sites. Upon stalling, two conserved residues within the peptidyltransferase center adopted conformations that preclude binding of release factors. We propose a model whereby interactions within the tunnel are relayed to the peptidyltransferase center to inhibit translation. Moreover, we show that nascent chains adopt distinct conformations within the ribosomal exit tunnel.

Synthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) by RNA polymerase (Pol) I is the first step in ribosome biogenesis and a regulatory switch in eukary-otic cell growth. Here we report the 12 A ˚ cryo-electron microscopic structure for the complete 14-subunit yeast Pol I, a homology model for the core enzyme, and the crystal structure of the subcomplex A14/43. In the resulting hybrid structure of Pol I, A14/43, the clamp, and the dock domain contribute to a unique surface interacting with promoter-specific initiation factors. The Pol I-specific subunits A49 and A34.5 form a heterodimer near the enzyme funnel that acts as a built-in elongation factor and is related to the Pol II-associated factor TFIIF. In contrast to Pol II, Pol I has a strong intrinsic 3 0-RNA cleavage activity, which requires the C-terminal domain of subunit A12.2 and, apparently, enables ribosomal RNA proofreading and 3 0-end trimming.