Myostatin is a secreted protein that normally functions as a negative regulator of muscle growth. Agents capable of blocking the myostatin signaling pathway could have important applications for treating human muscle degenerative diseases as well as for enhancing livestock production. Here we describe a potent myostatin inhibitor, a soluble form of the activin type IIB receptor (ACVR2B), which can cause dramatic increases in muscle mass (up to 60% in 2 weeks) when injected into wild-type mice. Furthermore, we show that the effect of the soluble receptor is attenuated but not eliminated in Mstn ؊/؊ mice, suggesting that at least one other ligand in addition to myostatin normally functions to limit muscle growth. Finally, we provide genetic evidence that these ligands signal through both activin type II receptors, ACVR2 and ACVR2B, to regulate muscle growth in vivo. Mice carrying a targeted mutation in the myostatin gene have muscles that are about twice the normal size as a result of a combination of muscle fiber hyperplasia and hypertrophy (2). Myostatin appears to play a similar role in other species as well; naturally occurring mutations in the myostatin gene have been shown to be responsible for the double-muscling phenotype in cattle (3-6), and recent studies have demonstrated that a human baby with approximately twice the normal muscle mass is also homozygous for a loss-of-function mutation in the MSTN gene (7). These findings have raised the possibility that agents capable of targeting the myostatin signaling pathway may be useful for increasing muscle mass for both agricultural and human therapeutic applications. In this regard, loss of myostatin signaling has been shown to have beneficial effects in mouse models of muscle degenerative (8, 9) and metabolic (10) diseases.Various myostatin-binding proteins have been identified that are capable of inhibiting myostatin activity in vitro (8,(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16). Two of these proteins, the JA16 neutralizing monoclonal antibody (Ab) directed against myostatin (8, 15) and a mutant form of the myostatin propeptide resistant to members of the BMP-1͞tolloid family of metalloproteases (16), have been shown to be capable of increasing muscle mass by Ϸ25% when administered to wild-type (WT) mice. To determine whether these increases in muscle growth are the maximal achievable by targeting this signaling pathway, we sought additional myostatin inhibitors that might have a broader specificity in their ability to target additional members of the TGF-␤ superfamily. Previous studies have demonstrated that myostatin is capable of binding the two activin type II receptors, ACVR2B and, to a lesser extent, ACVR2, in transfected COS cells (11,17). Moreover, transgenic mice in which a myosin light chain promoter͞ enhancer was used to express a truncated form of ACVR2B in skeletal muscle were found to have dramatic increases in muscle mass (11). Because the activin type II receptors have been shown to be capable of binding a number of other TGF-␤ family members in addition to ...

Myostatin is a transforming growth factor ␤ family member that acts as a negative regulator of skeletal muscle growth. Myostatin circulates in the blood of adult mice in a noncovalently held complex with other proteins, including its propeptide, which maintain the C-terminal dimer in a latent, inactive state. This latent form of myostatin can be activated in vitro by treatment with acid; however, the mechanisms by which latent myostatin is activated in vivo are unknown. Here, we show that members of the bone morphogenetic protein-1͞tolloid (BMP-1͞TLD) family of metalloproteinases can cleave the myostatin propeptide in this complex and can thereby activate latent myostatin. Furthermore, we show that a mutant form of the propeptide resistant to cleavage by BMP-1͞TLD proteinases can cause significant increases in muscle mass when injected into adult mice. These findings raise the possibility that members of the BMP-1͞TLD family may be involved in activating latent myostatin in vivo and that molecules capable of inhibiting these proteinases may be effective agents for increasing muscle mass for both human therapeutic and agricultural applications.

We have identified a new murine transforming growth factor ␤ superfamily member, growth-differentiation factor 15 (Gdf15), that is expressed at highest levels in adult liver. As determined by Northern analysis, the expression of Gdf15 in liver was rapidly and dramatically up-regulated following various surgical and chemical treatments that cause acute liver injury and regeneration. In situ hybridization analysis revealed distinct patterns of Gdf15 mRNA localization that appeared to reflect the known patterns of hepatocyte injury in each experimental treatment. In addition, treatment of two hepatocyte-like cell lines with either carbon tetrachloride or heat shock induced Gdf15 mRNA expression, indicating that direct cellular injury can induce Gdf15 expression in the absence of other cell types, such as inflammatory cells. In order to investigate the potential functions of Gdf15, we created Gdf15 null mice by gene targeting. Homozygous null mice were viable and fertile. Despite the dramatic regulation of Gdf15 expression observed in the partial-hepatectomy and carbon tetrachloride injury models, we found no differences in the injury responses between homozygous null mutants and wild-type mice. Our findings suggest either that Gdf15 does not have a regulatory role in liver injury and regeneration or that Gdf15 function within the liver is redundant with that of other signaling molecules.The transforming growth factor ␤ (TGF-␤) superfamily consists of a diverse group of structurally related proteins involved in the growth, differentiation, and repair of many tissues (reviewed by McPherron and Lee [26]). For mammals, more than 30 different members of this superfamily have been reported, including the TGF-␤s, bone morphogenetic proteins, inhibins and activins, Müllerian inhibiting substance, nodal, leftys, TGF-␤-related neurotrophic factors (GDNF, neurturin, persephin, and artemin), and a heterogeneous group of proteins referred to as growth-differentiation factors.Each member of the TGF-␤ superfamily is synthesized as a large precursor protein that undergoes two proteolytic processing steps. The first involves removal of the N-terminal hydrophobic signal sequence. The second cleavage event occurs at a conserved RXXR site approximately 120 amino acids from the C terminus, generating an N-terminal proregion and a biologically active C-terminal region. The C-terminal regions of all superfamily members are structurally related, and the various TGF-␤ superfamily members can be classified into distinct subgroups based on sequence homology in this region. Cterminal amino acid identities within a particular subgroup generally range from 70 to 90%, although homologies between subgroups are considerably lower. For most of the family members, the active species appears to be a disulfide-linked homodimer of C-terminal fragments. Heterodimers of some family members, such as the TGF-␤s and inhibins and activins, have also been shown to be biologically active, although in some cases with biological properties distinct from those of...

Programmed Death-1 (PD-1) is a co-inhibitory receptor that down-regulates the activity of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL) in cancer and of virus-specific T cells in chronic infection. The molecular mechanisms driving high PD-1 expression on TIL have not been fully investigated. We demonstrate that transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) directly enhances antigen-induced PD-1 expression through Smad3-dependent, Smad2-independent transcriptional activation in T cells in vitro and in TIL in vivo. The PD-1hi subset seen in CD8+ TIL is absent in Smad3-deficient tumor-specific CD8+ TIL, resulting in enhanced cytokine production by TIL and in draining lymph nodes and of anti-tumor activity. In addition to TGF-β1’s previously known effects on T cell function, our findings suggest that TGF-β1 mediates T cell suppression via PD-1 upregulation in the TME. They highlight bidirectional crosstalk between effector TIL and TGF-β-producing cells that upregulates multiple components of the PD-1 signaling pathway to inhibit anti-tumor immunity.