When anthropometric methods were introduced into clinical practice to quantify changes in the craniofacial framework, features distinguishing various races/ethnic groups were discovered. To treat congenital or post-traumatic facial disfigurements in members of these groups successfully, surgeons require access to craniofacial databases based on accurate anthropometric measurements. Normative data of facial measurements are indispensable to precise determination of the degree of deviations from the normal. The set of anthropometric measurements of the face in the population studied was gathered by an international team of scientists. Investigators in the country of the given ethnic group, experienced and/or specially trained in anthropometric methods, carried out the measurements. The normal range in each resultant database was then established, providing valuable information about major facial characteristics. Comparison of the ethnic groups' databases with the established norms of the North America whites (NAW) offered the most suitable way to select a method for successful treatment. The study group consisted of 1470 healthy subjects (18 to 30 years), 750 males and 720 females. The largest group (780 subjects, 53.1%) came from Europe, all of them Caucasians. Three were drawn from the Middle-East (180 subjects, 12.2%), five from Asia (300 subjects, 20.4%) and four from peoples of African origin (210 subjects, 14.3%). Their morphological characteristics were determined by 14 anthropometric measurements, 10 of them used already by classic facial artists, Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer, complemented by four measurements from the nasal, labio-oral and ear regions. In the regions with single measurements, identical values to NAW in forehead height, mouth width, and ear height were found in 99.7% in both sexes, while in those with multiple measurements, vertical measurements revealed a higher frequency of identical values than horizontal ones. The orbital regions exhibited the greatest variations in identical and contrasting measurements in comparison to NAW. Nose heights and widths contrasted sharply: in relation to NAW the nose was very or extremely significantly wide in both sexes of Asian and Black ethnic groups. Among Caucasians, nose height significantly differed from NAW in three ethnic groups, with one shorter and two greater. In the Middle Eastern groups nose width was identical to those of NAW but the height was significantly greater. The present study, conducted by investigators working separately across the world and with small samples of the population, is clearly preliminary in nature and extent. Yet it may fulfill its mission if medical and anthropological investigators continue the work of establishing normative data of the face. These data are urgently needed by medical professionals but have been lacking up till now in western and northern Europe, Asia, and Africa.

The aim of this cross-sectional anthropometric study was to determine the age-related changes in the facial framework during adulthood in healthy white North Americans of European ancestry (261 male subjects and 339 female subjects). Five measurements, four horizontal and one vertical, defining the framework were taken from the skin and bony surface of the face in the maturation period (16-20 years) and in 10-year age categories of adulthood (21-90 years). As well, the thickness of the soft-tissue cover between these two anatomical levels was measured. The categories between 21 and 40 years represented early adulthood, those between 41 and 70 years represented middle adulthood, and those between 71 and 90 years represented late adulthood. The forehead width in both sexes increased significantly on the skin and bony surface from the maturation period to early adulthood. In middle adulthood, the changes were significant only sporadically. In late adulthood, the upper and lower jaw showed a harmonious change with age, mostly increasing on both the skin and bony surface. The face width proved to be the most stable measurement and had the thinnest soft-tissue cover. No consistent pattern emerged during adulthood in increases or decreases within the facial framework; however, an unexpected harmony was noted between the values of the measurements in early and late adulthood in both sexes on both the skin and bony surface. The thickness of the soft-tissue cover at the bony landmarks was greatest in the midface, with a moderately decreasing tendency in both sexes. In the lower jaw, the soft tissue showed significant increases in thickness in early adulthood and moderate to large decreases in late adulthood. Anthropometric analysis of the facial framework in adulthood marks only the first step in establishing the morphological changes of the aging face. Quantitative evaluation of changes within the facial framework of the aging population must be carried out in more detail. Increased worldwide migration results in a mixing of people of various racial/ethnic origins and necessitates a general anthropometric analysis of the aging face to provide more reliable guidelines for therapy.

AIM: The aim of this study was to determine the frequency and topographical distribution of minor physical anomalies (MPAs) in schizophrenia patients and control subjects, and the ability of the items of the Waldrop scale to predict the patient-control status. MATERIAL AND METHODS: 128 schizophrenic patients (66 men, 62 women) and 103 normal controls (49 men, 54 women) were evaluated for MPAs with a modifi ed version of the Waldrop scale. RESULTS: Compared with controls, schizophrenia patients showed a higher incidence of almost all studied MPAs, differences being statistically signifi cant for 12 items: fi ne electric hair, abnormal hair whorls, epicanthus, adherent ear-lobes, lower edges of the ears extending backward/upward, malformed ears, asymmetrical ears, high/arched palate, furrowed tongue, smooth/rough spots on the tongue, III toe ≥ II toe, big gap between I and II toe. Some anomalies occurred with almost equal frequency in schizophrenic patients and controls, while others were more than 10 times more common in patients (odds ratio: 0.62 -10.55). The distribution frequency of MPAs in schizophrenia tended to increase in the cranial direction. Nine predictor MPA biomarkers successfully distinguished 81.10% of patients, 81.55% of controls, and 81.30% of all examined subjects. CONCLUSIONS: The elevated incidence of MPA biomarkers in schizophrenia patients implies impaired neurodevelopment that increases the risk for the development of schizophrenia. The pattern of changes in the morphological characteristics suggests they may be a random outcome of a general neurodevelopmental defect or may refl ect different neurodevelopmental defects that allow better characterization of schizophrenia patients subgroups.

Our findings support the existence of a continuum of neurodevelopmental adversity within the clinical spectrum of psychosis, with bipolar I disorder occupying an intermediate position between psychiatric health and schizophrenia.

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