Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) is a transcriptional complex that plays a central role in the regulation of gene expression by oxygen. In oxygenated and iron replete cells, HIF-alpha subunits are rapidly destroyed by a mechanism that involves ubiquitylation by the von Hippel-Lindau tumor suppressor (pVHL) E3 ligase complex. This process is suppressed by hypoxia and iron chelation, allowing transcriptional activation. Here we show that the interaction between human pVHL and a specific domain of the HIF-1alpha subunit is regulated through hydroxylation of a proline residue (HIF-1alpha P564) by an enzyme we have termed HIF-alpha prolyl-hydroxylase (HIF-PH). An absolute requirement for dioxygen as a cosubstrate and iron as cofactor suggests that HIF-PH functions directly as a cellular oxygen sensor.

The 912 microtubule axoneme of flagella and cilia represents one of the most iconic structures built by eukaryotic cells and organisms. Both unity and diversity are present among cilia and flagella on the evolutionary as well as the developmental scale. Some cilia are motile, whereas others function as sensory organelles and can variously possess 912 and 910 axonemes and other associated structures 1 . How such unity and diversity are reflected in molecular repertoires is unclear. The flagellated protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei is endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, causing devastating disease in humans and other animals 2 . There is little hope of a vaccine for African sleeping sickness and a desperate need for modern drug therapies 3 . Here we present a detailed proteomic analysis of the trypanosome flagellum. RNA interference (RNAi)-based interrogation of this proteome provides functional insights into human ciliary diseases and establishes that flagellar function is essential to the bloodstream-form trypanosome. We show that RNAi-mediated ablation of various proteins identified in the trypanosome flagellar proteome leads to a rapid and marked failure of cytokinesis in bloodstream-form (but not procyclic insect-form) trypanosomes, suggesting that impairment of flagellar function may provide a method of disease control. A postgenomic meta-analysis, comparing the evolutionarily ancient trypanosome with other eukaryotes including humans, identifies numerous trypanosome-specific flagellar proteins, suggesting new avenues for selective intervention.Flagellum-mediated migration between the gut and salivary glands of its tsetse fly vector is essential for progression of the trypanosome life cycle. However, the necessity for motility in an extracellular bloodstream-form trypanosome is unclear. In both forms, a single attached flagellum emerges from a posterior flagellar pocket ( Fig. 1a) and comprises a membrane-bound axoneme and associated paraflagellar rod (PFR; Fig 1b). We isolated the structural axoneme and associated PFR and basal body from procyclic trypanosomes by a well-characterized procedure of detergent and high-salt treatment 4 . Bands and spots were cut from one- (Fig. 1c) and twodimensional gels and digested with trypsin, and the resulting peptides analysed by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Bands and spots excised from ten representative gels were analysed, resulting in the identification of 522 nonredundant proteins.Further manual mass spectrometric validation confirmed 380 proteins (see Supplementary Methods and Supplementary Fig. 1 for peptide numbers and coverage). Highly basic proteins are known to contaminate microtubule preparations owing to charge interactions 4 , and we noted some highly basic ribosomal proteins as recognizable contaminants. To limit contamination, we filtered the data by using an isolectric point (pI) value of 10.2 as a cut-off (the pI of the most acidic ribosomal protein), and placed 49 proteins (30 of which were r...

The influence of acid−base interactions on the gas-phase dissociation of a series of protonated peptides was investigated. Peptides containing both acidic residues [aspartic (D), glutamic (E), and cysteic acid (C*)] and basic residues [arginine (R)] were dissociated by different activation methods that allow different time frames for dissociation. The synthetic peptides investigated differ systematically in the number and position of arginine residue(s) and include R LDIFSDF R , R LEIFSEF R , R LDIFSDF, LDIFSDF R , LEIFSEF R , LDIFSDF, R LCIFSCF R , R LAIFSCF R , R LCIFSAF R , R LC*IFSC*F R , R LAIFSC*F R , and R LC*IFSAF R (where C* denotes cysteic acid). It was observed that the number of ionizing protons relative to the number of basic residues in peptides containing acidic residues is a contributing factor in the fragmentation behavior. Nonselective cleavages along the peptide backbone occur when the number of ionizing protons exceeds the number of arginine residues, while dominant cleavages adjacent to the acidic residues predominate when the number of ionizing protons equals the number of arginine residues. In particular, enhanced b7/y2, and y6, y2 singly charged fragment ions were detected for the doubly protonated R LDIFSDF R and singly protonated LDIFSDF R precursor ions, respectively. These are the result of enhanced cleavage of the DF bond in the doubly protonated R LDIFSDF R and the DI plus DF bonds in the singly protonated LDIFSDF R . Abundant d and b-H2SO3 product ions indicative of specific cleavages adjacent to C* were observed in the cysteic acid-containing peptides when the number of ionizing protons equaled the number of arginine residues. Dominant cleavages at glutamic acid(s) were also observed for doubly protonated R LEIFSEF R and singly protonated LEIFSEF R when longer dissociation times were available. Preferential cleavage(s) at the acidic residue(s) occurs on the microsecond time scale for aspartic acid and greater than microsecond time scale for glutamic acid. This different behavior for aspartic vs glutamic acid is likely to have important implications in mass spectrometry-based sequencing strategies. However, the product ion spectra of most of the peptides investigated ( R LDIFSDF R , R LDIFSDF, LDIFSDF R , LEIFSEF R , and LDIFSDF) were found to be very similar under the array of activation methods used. These included surface-induced dissociation in a quadrupole tandem mass spectrometer, high-energy collision-induced dissociation in a hybrid sector/time-of flight mass spectrometer, and sustained off-resonance irradiation in a Fourier transform mass spectrometer. The unique fragmentation of peptides containing basic and acidic residues is rationalized as evidence for the existence of gas-phase intramolecular solvation that strongly influences their fragmentation. We propose that it is the available acidic proton(s) on the acidic residue(s) not involved in solvating the protonated arginine that is initiating the dominant cleavage(s). Electrospray ionization/SID frag...

Functional genomic experiments frequently involve a comparison of the levels of gene expression between two or more genetic, developmental, or physiological states. Such comparisons can be carried out at either the RNA (transcriptome) or protein (proteome) level, but there is often a lack of congruence between parallel analyses using these two approaches. To fully interpret protein abundance data from proteomic experiments, it is necessary to understand the contributions made by the opposing processes of synthesis and degradation to the transition between the states compared. Thus, there is a need for reliable methods to determine the rates of turnover of individual proteins at amounts comparable to those obtained in proteomic experiments. Here, we show that stable isotope-labeled amino acids can be used to define the rate of breakdown of individual proteins by inspection of mass shifts in tryptic fragments. The approach has been applied to an analysis of abundant proteins in glucoselimited yeast cells grown in aerobic chemostat culture at steady state. The average rate of degradation of 50 proteins was 2.2%/h, although some proteins were turned over at imperceptible rates, and others had degradation rates of almost 10%/h. This range of values suggests that protein turnover is a significant missing dimension in proteomic experiments and needs to be considered when assessing protein abundance data and comparing it to the relative abundance of cognate mRNA species.

Absolute quantification in proteomics usually involves simultaneous determination of representative proteolytic peptides and stable isotope-labeled analogs. The principal limitation to widespread implementation of this approach is the availability of standard signature peptides in accurately known amounts. We report the successful design and construction of an artificial gene encoding a concatenation of tryptic peptides (QCAT protein) from several chick (Gallus gallus) skeletal muscle proteins and features for quantification and purification.

An important area of proteomics involves the need for quantification, whether relative or absolute. Many methods now exist for relative quantification, but to support biomarker proteomics and systems biology, absolute quantification rather than relative quantification is required. Absolute quantification usually involves the concomitant mass spectrometric determination of signature proteotypic peptides and stable isotope-labeled analogs. However, the availability of standard labeled signature peptides in accurately known amounts is a limitation to the widespread adoption of this approach. We describe the design and synthesis of artificial QconCAT proteins that are concatamers of tryptic peptides for several proteins. This protocol details the methods for the design, expression, labeling, purification, characterization and use of the QconCATs in the absolute quantification of complex protein mixtures. The total time required to complete this protocol (from the receipt of the QconCAT expression plasmid to the absolute quantification of the set of proteins encoded by the QconCAT protein in an analyte sample) is approximately 29 d.

The proteome of any system is a dynamic entity, such that the intracellular concentration of a protein is dictated by the relative rates of synthesis and degradation. In this work, we have analyzed time-dependent changes in the incorporation of a stable amino acid resolved precursor, a protocol we refer to as "dynamic SILAC", using 1-D gel separation followed by in-gel digestion and LC-MS/MS analyses to profile the intracellular stability of almost 600 proteins from human A549 adenocarcinoma cells, requiring multiple measures of the extent of labeling with stable isotope labeled amino acids in a classic label-chase experiment. As turnover rates are acquired, a profile can be built up that allows exploration of the 'dynamic proteome' and of putative features that predispose a protein to a high or a low rate of turnover. Moreover, measurement of the turnover rate of individual components of supramolecular complexes provides a unique insight in processes of protein complex assembly and turnover.

Background: Cell growth underlies many key cellular and developmental processes, yet a limited number of studies have been carried out on cell-growth regulation. Comprehensive studies at the transcriptional, proteomic and metabolic levels under defined controlled conditions are currently lacking.