BackgroundThe spatial learning abilities of developing mice benefit from extrinsic cues, such as an enriched environment, with concomitant enhancement in cognitive functions. Interestingly, such enhancements can be further increased through intrinsic Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination.ResultsHere, we first report that combined neonatal BCG vaccination and exposure to an enriched environment (Enr) induced combined neurobeneficial effects, including hippocampal long-term potentiation, and increased neurogenesis and spatial learning and memory, in mice exposed to the Enr and vaccinated with BCG relative to those in the Enr that did not receive BCG vaccination. Neonatal BCG vaccination markedly induced anti-inflammatory meningeal macrophage polarization both in regular and Enr breeding mice. The meninges are composed of the pia mater, dura mater, and choroid plexus. Alternatively, this anti-inflammatory activity of the meninges occurred simultaneously with increased expression of the neurotrophic factors BDNF/IGF-1 and the M2 microglial phenotype in the hippocampus. Our results reveal a critical role for BCG vaccination in the regulation of neurogenesis and spatial cognition through meningeal macrophage M2 polarization and neurotrophic factor expression; these effects were completely or partially prevented by minocycline or anti-IL-10 antibody treatment, respectively.ConclusionsTogether, we first claim that immunological factor and environmental factor induce a combined effect on neurogenesis and cognition via a common pathway-meningeal macrophage M2 polarization. We also present a novel functional association between peripheral T lymphocytes and meningeal macrophages after evoking adaptive immune responses in the periphery whereby T lymphocytes are recruited to the meninges in response to systemic IFN-γ signaling. This leads to meningeal macrophage M2 polarization, subsequent to microglial M2 activation and neurotrophic factor expression, and eventually promotes a positive behavior.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-017-0808-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The transition from vegetative to reproductive growth is a critical process in the life cycle of higher plants. Previously, we cloned Rice Indeterminate 1 (RID1), which acts as the master switch for the transition from the vegetative to reproductive phase in rice. Although the photoperiod pathway of RID1 inducing expression of the florigen genes Hd3a and RFT1 via Ehd1 has been established, the alternative pathways for the essential flowering transition need to be further examined. Here, we identified a Suppressor of rid1 (SID1), which rescues the never-flowering phenotype of rid1. SID1 encodes an INDETERMINATE DOMAIN (IDD) transcription factor. Mutation in SID1 showed the delayed flowering phenotype. Gain-of-function of SID1, OsIDD1, or OsIDD6 could restore the rid1 to flowering. Further analyses showed SID1 and RID1 directly target the promoter regions of Hd3a and RFT1, two florigen genes in rice. Taken together, our results reveal an autonomous flowering pathway might be mediated by RID1, thereby controlling the phase transition from vegetative to reproductive development in rice.

BackgroundPrenatal infection is a substantial risk factor for neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism in offspring. We have previously reported that influenza vaccination (VAC) during early pregnancy contributes to neurogenesis and behavioral function in offspring.ResultsHere, we probe the efficacy of VAC pretreatment on autism-like behaviors in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced maternal immune activation (MIA) mouse model. We show that VAC improves abnormal fetal brain cytoarchitecture and lamination, an effect associated with promotion of intermediate progenitor cell differentiation in MIA fetal brain. These beneficial effects are sufficient to prevent social deficits in adult MIA offspring. Furthermore, whole-genome analysis suggests a strong interaction between Ikzf1 (IKAROS family zinc-finger 1) and neuronal differentiation. Intriguingly, VAC rescues excessive microglial Ikzf1 expression and attenuates microglial inflammatory responses in the MIA fetal brain.ConclusionsOur study implies that a preprocessed influenza vaccination prevents maternal bacterial infection from causing neocortical lamination impairments and autism-related behaviors in offspring.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s12974-018-1252-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Previous research has implied that monetary reward to target location (a reward for spatial properties) can affect object‐based attention, but no study has directly investigated the influence of monetary objects (a reward for object properties) on object‐based attention. Thus, it is unclear whether and how monetary objects can affect object‐based attention. To experimentally investigate this problem, this study adapted the well‐established two‐rectangle paradigm. In Experiment 1, either two 100‐yuan notes or two 1‐yuan notes were presented to participants. We found an object‐based effect with faster responses to targets at an uncued position on the cued object compared to those at an equidistant position on the uncued object; the effect was similar in 100‐yuan and 1‐yuan note trials. In Experiment 2, two notes (one 100‐yuan and one 1‐yuan) were simultaneously presented to participants, and cue location (100‐yuan, 1‐yuan) was manipulated. We found a greater object‐based effect when the cue appeared on the 100‐yuan note than on the 1‐yuan note. These results suggest that the rewarding property of objects can affect object‐based attention by means of altering object salience.