The electrogenic sodium bicarbonate cotransporter NBCe1 (SLC4A4) expressed in astrocytes regulates intracellular and extracellular pH. Here, we introduce transforming growth factor beta (TGF‐β) as a novel regulator of NBCe1 transcription and functional expression. Using hippocampal slices and primary hippocampal and cortical astrocyte cultures, we investigated regulation of NBCe1 and elucidated the underlying signaling pathways by RT‐PCR, immunoblotting, immunofluorescence, intracellular H(+) recording using the H(+) ‐sensitive dye 2′,7′‐bis‐(carboxyethyl)‐5‐(and‐6)‐carboxyfluorescein, mink lung epithelial cell (MLEC) assay, and chromatin immunoprecipitation. Activation of TGF‐β signaling significantly upregulated transcript, protein, and surface expression of NBCe1. These effects were TGF‐β receptor‐mediated and suppressed following inhibition of JNK and Smad signaling. Moreover, 4‐aminopyridine (4AP)‐dependent NBCe1 regulation requires TGF‐β. TGF‐β increased the rate and amplitude of intracellular H+ changes upon challenging NBCe1 in wild‐type astrocytes but not in cortical astrocytes from Slc4a4‐deficient mice. A Smad4 binding sequence was identified in the NBCe1 promoter and Smad4 binding increased after activation of TGF‐β signaling. The data show for the first time that NBCe1 is a direct target of TGF‐β/Smad4 signaling. Through activation of the canonical pathway TGF‐β acts directly on NBCe1 by binding of Smad4 to the NBCe1 promoter and regulating its transcription, followed by increased protein expression and transport activity.

The electrogenic sodium bicarbonate cotransporter 1, NBCe1 (SLC4A4), is the major bicarbonate transporter expressed in astrocytes. It is highly sensitive for bicarbonate and the main regulator of intracellular, extracellular, and synaptic pH, thereby modulating neuronal excitability. However, despite these essential functions, the molecular mechanisms underlying NBCe1‐mediated astrocytic response to extracellular pH changes are mostly unknown. Using primary mouse cortical astrocyte cultures, we investigated the effect of long‐term extracellular metabolic alkalosis on regulation of NBCe1 and elucidated the underlying molecular mechanisms by immunoblotting, biotinylation of surface proteins, intracellular H+ recording using the H+‐sensitive dye 2′,7′‐bis‐(carboxyethyl)‐5‐(and‐6)‐carboxyfluorescein, and phosphoproteomic analysis. The results showed significant downregulation of NBCe1 activity following metabolic alkalosis without influencing protein abundance or surface expression of NBCe1. During alkalosis, the rate of intracellular H+ changes upon challenging NBCe1 was decreased in wild‐type astrocytes, but not in cortical astrocytes from NBCe1‐deficient mice. Alkalosis‐induced decrease of NBCe1 activity was rescued after activation of mTOR signaling. Moreover, mass spectrometry revealed constitutively phosphorylated S255‐257 and mutational analysis uncovered these residues being crucial for NBCe1 transport activity. Our results demonstrate a novel mTOR‐regulated mechanism by which NBCe1 functional expression is regulated. Such mechanism likely applies not only for NBCe1 in astrocytes, but in epithelial cells as well.

Maternal immune activation (MIA) during critical windows of gestation is correlated with long-term neurodevelopmental deficits in the offspring, including increased risk for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in humans. Interleukin 6 (IL-6) derived from the gestational parent is one of the major molecular mediators by which MIA alters the developing brain. In this study, we establish a human three-dimensional (3D) in vitro model of MIA by treating induced pluripotent stem cell-derived dorsal forebrain organoids with a constitutively active form of IL-6, Hyper-IL-6. We validate our model by showing that dorsal forebrain organoids express the molecular machinery necessary for responding to Hyper-IL-6 and activate STAT signaling upon Hyper-IL-6 treatment. RNA sequencing analysis reveals the upregulation of major histocompatibility complex class I (MHCI) genes in response to Hyper-IL-6 exposure, which have been implicated with ASD. We find a small increase in the proportion of radial glia cells after Hyper-IL-6 treatment through immunohistochemistry and single-cell RNA-sequencing. We further show that radial glia cells are the cell type with the highest number of differentially expressed genes, and Hyper-IL-6 treatment leads to the downregulation of genes related to protein translation in line with a mouse model of MIA. Additionally, we identify differentially expressed genes not found in mouse models of MIA, which might drive species-specific responses to MIA. Finally, we show abnormal cortical layering as a long-term consequence of Hyper-IL-6 treatment. In summary, we establish a human 3D model of MIA, which can be used to study the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the increased risk for developing disorders such as ASD.

Functional activation of the neuronal K+-Cl− co-transporter KCC2 (also known as SLC12A5) is a prerequisite for shifting GABAA responses from depolarizing to hyperpolarizing during development. Here, we introduce transforming growth factor β2 (TGF-β2) as a new regulator of KCC2 membrane trafficking and functional activation. TGF-β2 controls membrane trafficking, surface expression and activity of KCC2 in developing and mature mouse primary hippocampal neurons, as determined by immunoblotting, immunofluorescence, biotinylation of surface proteins and KCC2-mediated Cl− extrusion. We also identify the signaling pathway from TGF-β2 to cAMP-response-element-binding protein (CREB) and Ras-associated binding protein 11b (Rab11b) as the underlying mechanism for TGF-β2-mediated KCC2 trafficking and functional activation. TGF-β2 increases colocalization and interaction of KCC2 with Rab11b, as determined by 3D stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy and co-immunoprecipitation, respectively, induces CREB phosphorylation, and enhances Rab11b gene expression. Loss of function of either CREB1 or Rab11b suppressed TGF-β2-dependent KCC2 trafficking, surface expression and functionality. Thus, TGF-β2 is a new regulatory factor for KCC2 functional activation and membrane trafficking, and a putative indispensable molecular determinant for the developmental shift of GABAergic transmission.