Nationwide prospective surveillance of all-age patients with acute respiratory infections was conducted in China between 2009‒2019. Here we report the etiological and epidemiological features of the 231,107 eligible patients enrolled in this analysis. Children <5 years old and school-age children have the highest viral positivity rate (46.9%) and bacterial positivity rate (30.9%). Influenza virus, respiratory syncytial virus and human rhinovirus are the three leading viral pathogens with proportions of 28.5%, 16.8% and 16.7%, and Streptococcus pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Klebsiella pneumoniae are the three leading bacterial pathogens (29.9%, 18.6% and 15.8%). Negative interactions between viruses and positive interactions between viral and bacterial pathogens are common. A Join-Point analysis reveals the age-specific positivity rate and how this varied for individual pathogens. These data indicate that differential priorities for diagnosis, prevention and control should be highlighted in terms of acute respiratory tract infection patients’ demography, geographic locations and season of illness in China.

National-based prospective surveillance of all-age patients with acute diarrhea was conducted in China between 2009‒2018. Here we report the etiological, epidemiological, and clinical features of the 152,792 eligible patients enrolled in this analysis. Rotavirus A and norovirus are the two leading viral pathogens detected in the patients, followed by adenovirus and astrovirus. Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli and nontyphoidal Salmonella are the two leading bacterial pathogens, followed by Shigella and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Patients aged <5 years had higher overall positive rate of viral pathogens, while bacterial pathogens were more common in patients aged 18‒45 years. A joinpoint analysis revealed the age-specific positivity rate and how this varied for individual pathogens. Our findings fill crucial gaps of how the distributions of enteropathogens change across China in patients with diarrhea. This allows enhanced identification of the predominant diarrheal pathogen candidates for diagnosis in clinical practice and more targeted application of prevention and control measures.

Background Non pharmaceutical interventions (NPI) including hand washing directives were implemented in China and worldwide to combat the COVID-19 pandemic, which are likely to have had impacted a broad spectrum of enteric pathogen infections. Methods Etiologically diagnostic data from 45 937 and 67 395 patients with acute diarrhea between 2012 and 2020, who were tested for seven viral pathogens and 13 bacteria respectively, were analyzed to assess the changes of enteric pathogen infections in China during the first COVID-19 pandemic year compared to pre-pandemic years. Findings Test positive rates of all enteric viruses decreased during 2020, compared to the average levels during 2012−2019, with a relative decrease of 71•75% for adenovirus, 58•76% for norovirus, 53•50% for rotavirus A, and 72•07% for the combination of other four uncommon viruses. In general, a larger reduction of positive rate in viruses was seen among adults than pediatric patients. A rebound of rotavirus A was seen after September 2020 in North China rather than South China. Test positive rates of bacteria decreased during 2020, compared to the average levels during 2012−2019, excepting for nontyphoidal Salmonella and Campylobacter coli with 66•53% and 90•48% increase respectively. This increase was larger for pediatric patients than for adult patients. Interpretation The activity of enteric pathogens changed profoundly alongside the NPIs implemented during the COVID-19 pandemic in China. Greater reductions of the test positive rates were found for almost all enteric viruses than for bacteria among acute diarrhea patients, with further large differences by age and geography. Lifting of NPIs will lead to resurgence of enteric pathogen infections, particularly in children whose immunity may not have been developed and/or waned. Funding China Mega-Project on Infectious Disease Prevention; National Natural Science Funds.

Background Acute meningitis or encephalitis (AME) results from a neurological infection causing high case fatality and severe sequelae. AME lacked comprehensive surveillance in China.Methods Nation-wide surveillance of all-age patients with AME syndromes was conducted in 144 sentinel hospitals of 29 provinces in China. Eleven AME-causative viral and bacterial pathogens were tested with multiple diagnostic methods.Findings Between 2009 and 2018, 20,454 AME patients were recruited for tests. Based on 9,079 patients with allfour-virus tested, 28.43% (95% CI: 27.50%-29.36%) of them had at least one virus-positive detection. Enterovirus was the most frequently determined virus in children <18 years, herpes simplex virus and Japanese encephalitis virus were the most frequently determined in 18À59 and ≥60 years age groups, respectively. Based on 6,802 patients with all-seven-bacteria tested, 4.43% (95% CI: 3.94%-4.91%) had at least one bacteria-positive detection, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Neisseria meningitidis were the leading bacterium in children aged <5 years and 5À17 years, respectively. Staphylococcus aureus was the most frequently detected in adults aged 18À59 and ≥60 years. The pathogen spectrum also differed statistically significantly between northern and southern China. Joinpoint analysis revealed age-specific positive rates, with enterovirus, herpes simplex virus and mumps virus peaking at 3À6 years old, while Japanese encephalitis virus peaked in the ≥60 years old. As age increased, the positive rate for

PURPOSE H1-antihistamines (AHs) may exert protective effects against cancer. This study investigated the association of AH use with the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in patients with hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), or dual HBV-HCV virus infection. MATERIALS AND METHODS Patients with HBV, HCV, or dual HBV-HCV infection were enrolled from Taiwan's National Health Insurance Research Database and examined for the period from January 1, 2006, to December 31, 2015. We used the Kaplan-Meier method and Cox proportional hazards regression to evaluate the association between AH use and HCC risk. RESULTS We included patients with HBV infection (n = 521,071), HCV (n = 169,159), and dual HBV-HCV (n = 39,016). Patients with HBV, HCV, or dual virus infection who used AHs exhibited significantly lower risk of HCC relative to patients who did not use AH, with their adjusted hazard ratio being 0.489 (95% CI, 0.455 to 0.524), 0.484 (95% CI, 0.450 to 0.522), and 0.469 (95% CI, 0.416 to 0.529), respectively. Furthermore, there was a dose-response relationship between AH use and the risk of HCC in the HBV cohort. The adjusted hazard ratios were 0.597 (95% CI, 0.530 to 0.674), 0.528 (0.465 to 0.600), 0.470 (0.416 to 0.531), and 0.407 (0.362 to 0.457) for AH use of 28-42, 43-63, 64-119, and ≥ 120 cumulative defined daily doses, respectively, relative to no AH use. Additionally, there was also a dose-response relationship between AH use and the risk of HCC in the HCV and dual HBV-HCV cohorts. CONCLUSION AH use may reduce the risk for HCC among patients with HBV, HCV, or dual infection in a dose-dependent manner. Further mechanistic research is needed.