Numerous viruses, including HIV-1, exploit the microtubule network to traffic toward the nucleus during infection. Although numerous studies have observed a role for the minus-end microtubule motor dynein in HIV-1 infection, the mechanism by which the viral core containing the viral genome associates with dynein and induces its perinuclear trafficking has remained unclear. Here, we report that the dynein adapter protein bicaudal D2 (BICD2) is able to interact with HIV-1 viral cores in target cells. We also observe that BICD2 can bind in vitro-assembled capsid tubes through its CC3 domain. We observe that BICD2 facilitates infection by promoting the trafficking of viral cores to the nucleus, thereby promoting nuclear entry of the viral genome and infection. Finally, we observe that depletion of BICD2 in the monocytic cell line THP-1 results in an induction of IFN-stimulated genes in these cells. Collectively, these results identify a microtubule adapter protein critical for trafficking of HIV-1 in the cytoplasm of target cells and evasion of innate sensing mechanisms in macrophages.
Summary
T cells are activated by antigen (Ag) bearing dendritic cells (DCs) in lymph nodes in 3 phases. The duration of the initial phase of transient, serial DC-T cell interactions is inversely correlated with Ag dose. The second phase, characterized by stable DC-T cell contacts, is believed to be necessary for full-fledged T cell activation. Here we have shown that this is not the case. CD8+ T cells interacting with DCs presenting low-dose, short-lived Ag did not transition to phase 2, while higher Ag dose yielded phase 2 transition. Both antigenic constellations promoted T cell proliferation and effector differentiation, but yielded different transcriptome signatures at 12h and 24h. T cells that experienced phase 2 developed long-lived memory, whereas conditions without stable contacts yielded immunological amnesia. Thus, T cells make fate decisions within hours after Ag exposure resulting in long-term memory or abortive effector responses, correlating with T cell-DCs interaction kinetics.
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