Soil organic matter (OM) can be stabilized against decomposition by association with minerals, by its inherent recalcitrance and by occlusion in aggregates. However, the relative contribution of these factors to OM stabilization is yet unknown. We analyzed pool size and isotopic composition ( 14 C, 13 C) of mineral-protected and recalcitrant OM in 12 subsurface horizons from 10 acidic forest soils. The results were related to properties of the mineral phase and to OM composition as revealed by CPMAS 13 C-NMR and CuO oxidation. Stable OM was defined as that material which survived treatment of soils with 6 wt% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl). Mineral-protected OM was extracted by subsequent dissolution of minerals by 10% hydrofluoric acid (HF). Organic matter resistant against NaOCl and insoluble in HF was considered as recalcitrant OM. Hypochlorite removed primarily 14 C-modern OM. Of the stable organic carbon (OC), amounting to 2.4-20.6 g kg À1 soil, mineral dissolution released on average 73%. Poorly crystalline Fe and Al phases (Fe o , Al o ) and crystalline Fe oxides (Fe dÀo ) explained 86% of the variability of mineral-protected OC. Atomic C p /(Fe+Al) p ratios of 1.3-6.5 suggest that a portion of stable OM was associated with polymeric Fe and Al species. Recalcitrant OC (0.4-6.5 g kg À1 soil) contributed on average 27% to stable OC and the amount was not correlated with any mineralogical property. Recalcitrant OC had lower D 14 C and d 13 C values than mineral-protected OC and was mainly composed of aliphatic (56%) and O-alkyl (13%) C moieties. Lignin phenols were only present in small amounts in either mineral-protected or recalcitrant OM (mean 4.3 and 0.2 g kg À1 OC). The results confirm that stabilization of OM by interaction with poorly crystalline minerals and polymeric metal species is the most important mechanism for preservation of OM in these acid subsoil horizons.Abbreviations: CPMAS 13 C-NMR -cross-polarization magic-angle spinning 13 C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy; FR -fluoride reactivity; OC -organic C; OM -organic matter; MOC and MN -mineral-protected organic C and N; ROC and RN -chemically resistant (recalcitrant) organic C and N; SSA -specific surface area; XRD -x-ray diffraction; TEM -transmission electron microscopy

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Soil minerals are known to influence the biological stability of soil organic matter (SOM). Our study aimed to relate properties of the mineral matrix to its ability to protect organic C against decomposition in acid soils. We used the amount of hydroxyl ions released after exposure to NaF solution to establish a reactivity gradient spanning 12 subsoil horizons collected from 10 different locations. The subsoil horizons represent six soil orders and diverse geological parent materials. Phyllosilicates were characterized by X-ray diffraction and pedogenic oxides by selective dissolution procedures. The organic carbon (C) remaining after chemical removal of an oxidizable fraction of SOM with NaOCl solution was taken to represent a stable organic carbon pool. Stable organic carbon was confirmed as older than bulk organic carbon by a smaller radiocarbon ( 14 C) content after oxidation in all 12 soils. The amount of stable organic C did not depend on clay content or the content of dithionite-citrate-extractable Fe. The combination of oxalate-extractable Fe and Al explained the greatest amount of variation in stable organic C (R 2 ¼ 0.78). Our results suggest that in acid soils, organic matter is preferentially protected by interaction with poorly crystalline minerals represented by the oxalate-soluble Fe and Al fraction. This evidence suggests that ligand exchange between mineral surface hydroxyl groups and negatively charged organic functional groups is a quantitatively important mechanism in the stabilization of SOM in acid soils. The results imply a finite stabilization capacity of soil minerals for organic matter, limited by the area density of reactive surface sites.

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The Podzol has been elected "Soil of the year 2007" in Germany. This article reviews the present knowledge on the development, functions, and threats of Podzols. The main theories on mobilization and transport of organic matter, Fe, Al, and Si are (1) metal-organic migration, (2) metal reduction, and (3) inorganic sol migration. Immobilization theories include precipitation or polymerization due to increasing pH/ abundance of base cations with depth, mechanical filtering in soil pores, oxidation of metal-organic complexes, biodegradation of the organic part, decreasing C-to-metal ratios during translocation, adsorption to soil particles, and flocculation at the point of zero charge. Podzolization is discussed also on the catena scale, where vertical and lateral translocation processes (across pedon boundaries) need to be considered to understand Podzol patterns in landscapes. Chronosequence studies show that incipient podzolization usually becomes visible between 100 and 500 y and mature Podzols develop in 1,000-6,000 y. The occurrence of Podzols worldwide is concentrated mainly on the boreal zone and mountain regions within the humid temperate zone. Smaller Podzol areas are found in some perhumid tropical and subtropical regions. In Germany, Podzols occur in the Alps, in the glaciofluvial valleys and heathlands of N Germany, and in the mountain ranges. They fulfil several ecological functions, especially for groundwater recharge. Main threats for these mostly sandy soils are wind erosion and surface mining of sand. Two pedons which were chosen to represent the "Soil of the year 2007" are presented. Finally, some conclusions about podzolization processes are drawn, which may explain the diverse observations reported in the literature.

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