The importance of NADPH oxidase (Nox) in hypoxic responses in hypoxia-sensing cells, including pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs), remains uncertain. In this study, using Western blot analysis we found that the major Nox subunits Nox1, Nox4, p22(phox), p47(phox), and p67(phox) were equivalently expressed in mouse pulmonary and systemic (mesenteric) arteries. However, acute hypoxia significantly increased Nox activity and translocation of p47(phox) protein to the plasma membrane in pulmonary, but not mesenteric, arteries. The Nox inhibitor apocynin and p47(phox) gene deletion attenuated the hypoxic increase in intracellular concentrations of reactive oxygen species and Ca(2+) ([ROS](i) and [Ca(2+)](i)), as well as contractions in mouse PASMCs, and abolished the hypoxic activation of Nox in pulmonary arteries. The conventional/novel protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor chelerythrine, specific PKCepsilon translocation peptide inhibitor, and PKCepsilon gene deletion, but not the conventional PKC inhibitor GO6976, prevented the hypoxic increase in Nox activity in pulmonary arteries and [ROS](i) in PASMCs. The PKC activator phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate could increase Nox activity in pulmonary and mesenteric arteries. Inhibition of mitochondrial ROS generation with rotenone or myxothiazol prevented hypoxic activation of Nox. Glutathione peroxidase-1 (Gpx1) gene overexpression to enhance H(2)O(2) removal significantly inhibited the hypoxic activation of Nox, whereas Gpx1 gene deletion had the opposite effect. Exogenous H(2)O(2) increased Nox activity in pulmonary and mesenteric arteries. These findings suggest that acute hypoxia may distinctively activate Nox to increase [ROS](i) through the mitochondrial ROS-PKCepsilon signaling axis, providing a positive feedback mechanism to contribute to the hypoxic increase in [ROS](i) and [Ca(2+)](i) as well as contraction in PASMCs.

In this study we examined the expression of RyR subtypes and the role of RyRs in neurotransmitter- and hypoxia-induced Ca2+ release and contraction in pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). Under perforated patch clamp conditions, maximal activation of RyRs with caffeine or inositol triphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) with noradrenaline induced equivalent increases in [Ca2+]i and Ca2+-activated Cl− currents in freshly isolated rat PASMCs. Following maximal IP3-induced Ca2+ release, neither caffeine nor chloro-m-cresol induced a response, whereas prior application of caffeine or chloro-m-cresol blocked IP3-induced Ca2+ release. In cultured human PASMCs, which lack functional expression of RyRs, caffeine failed to affect ATP-induced increases in [Ca2+]i in the presence and absence of extracellular Ca2+. The RyR antagonists ruthenium red, ryanodine, tetracaine, and dantrolene greatly inhibited submaximal noradrenaline– and hypoxia-induced Ca2+ release and contraction in freshly isolated rat PASMCs, but did not affect ATP-induced Ca2+ release in cultured human PASMCs. Real-time quantitative RT-PCR and immunofluorescence staining indicated similar expression of all three RyR subtypes (RyR1, RyR2, and RyR3) in freshly isolated rat PASMCs. In freshly isolated PASMCs from RyR3 knockout (RyR3−/−) mice, hypoxia-induced, but not submaximal noradrenaline–induced, Ca2+ release and contraction were significantly reduced. Ruthenium red and tetracaine can further inhibit hypoxic increase in [Ca2+]i in RyR3−/− mouse PASMCs. Collectively, our data suggest that (a) RyRs play an important role in submaximal noradrenaline– and hypoxia-induced Ca2+ release and contraction; (b) all three subtype RyRs are expressed; and (c) RyR3 gene knockout significantly inhibits hypoxia-, but not submaximal noradrenaline–induced Ca2+ and contractile responses in PASMCs.

The molecular mechanisms underlying hypoxic responses in pulmonary and systemic arteries remain obscure. Here we for the first time report that acute hypoxia significantly increased total PKC and PKCɛ activity in pulmonary, but not mesenteric arteries, while these two tissues showed comparable PKCɛ protein expression and activation by the PKC activator phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate. Hypoxia induced an increase in intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation in isolated pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs), but not in mesenteric artery SMCs. Inhibition of mitochondrial ROS generation with rotenone, myxothiazol, or glutathione peroxidase-1 overexpression, prevented hypoxia-induced increases in total PKC and PKCɛ activity in pulmonary arteries. The inhibitory effects of rotenone were reversed by exogenous hydrogen peroxide. A PKCɛ translocation peptide inhibitor or PKCɛ gene deletion decreased hypoxic increase in [Ca 2+ ] i in PASMCs, whereas the conventional PKC inhibitor GÖ6976 had no effect. These data suggest that acute hypoxia may specifically increase mitochondrial ROS generation, which subsequently activates PKC, particularly PKCɛ, contributing to hypoxia-induced increase in [Ca 2+ ] i and contraction in PASMCs. KeywordsHypoxia; protein kinase C; reactive oxygen species; mitochondria; intracellular calcium; pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV) is observed in isolated lungs, pulmonary arteries, and pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). The pulmonary circulation differs from the systemic circulation in response to oxygen tension; pulmonary arteries constrict to physiological hypoxia (~ 20-60 mmHg PO 2 ), whereas systemic arteries vasodilate. The mechanisms for these opposing responses to hypoxia appear to lie within the vascular SMCs. Hypoxia increases intracellular Ca 2+ concentration ([Ca 2+ ] i ) and contracts PASMCs. In contrast, SMCs from systemic arteries display decreased [Ca 2+ ] i and relax in response to hypoxia. The response of PASMCs to acute hypoxia involves calcium entry through voltagedependent and store-operated Ca 2+ channels, as well as Ca 2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8]. Hypoxia-dependent changes in reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentration have been proposed to mediate HPV by several laboratories, although the details of this hypothesis differ greatly [9; 10]. However, the signaling pathways underlying artery-specific, acute hypoxic vasoconstriction remain to be fully elucidated. AnimalsPKCɛ −/− mice were purchased from the Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, ME); Swiss-Webster mice from Taconic (Germantown, NY). Glutathione peroxidase-1 (Gpx1) overexpression mice were generated and maintained as described previously [18]. All animal experiments were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Albany Medical College. To examine the effects of pharmacological reagents, control experiments were carried out in cells or tissues from the same mice. For experimen...

Membrane depolarization activates voltage-dependent Ca 2+ channels (VDCCs) inducing Ca 2+ release via ryanodine receptors (RyRs), which is obligatory for skeletal and cardiac muscle contraction and other physiological responses. However, depolarization-induced Ca 2+ release and its functional importance as well as underlying signaling mechanisms in smooth muscle cells (SMCs) are largely unknown. Here we report that membrane depolarization can induce RyR-mediated local Ca 2+ release, leading to a significant increase in the activity of Ca 2+ sparks and contraction in airway SMCs. The increased Ca 2+ sparks are independent of VDCCs and the associated extracellular Ca 2+ influx. This format of local Ca 2+ release results from a direct activation of G protein-coupled, M 3 muscarinic receptors in the absence of exogenous agonists, which causes activation of Gq proteins and phospholipase C, and generation of inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP 3 ), inducing initial Ca 2+ release through IP 3 receptors and then further Ca 2+ release via RyR2 due to a local Ca 2+ -induced Ca 2+ release process. These findings demonstrate an important mechanism for Ca 2+ signaling and attendant physiological function in SMCs.

Cerebral vascular dysfunction and associated diseases often occur in type-1 diabetes, but the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. In this study, we sought to determine whether big-conductance, Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK) channels were impaired in vascular (cerebral artery) smooth muscle cells (CASMCs) from streptozotocin-induced type-1 diabetic mice using patch clamp, molecular biologic, and genetic approaches. Our data indicate that the frequency and amplitude of spontaneous transient outward currents (STOCs) are significantly decreased, whereas the activity of spontaneous Ca(2+) sparks is increased, in diabetic CASMCs. The sensitivity of BK channels to voltage, Ca(2+), and the specific inhibitor iberiotoxin are all reduced in diabetic myocytes. Diabetic mice show increased myogenic tone and decreased contraction in response to iberiotoxin in cerebral arteries and elevated blood pressure. The expression of the BK channel beta1, but not alpha-subunit protein, is markedly decreased in diabetic cerebral arteries. Diabetic impairment of BK channel activity is lost in CASMCs from BK channel beta1-subunit gene deletion mice. In conclusion, the BK channel beta1-subunit is impaired in type-1 diabetic vascular SMCs, resulting in increased vasoconstriction and elevated blood pressure, thereby contributing to vascular diseases in type-1 diabetes.