We explore the simple inter-relationships between mass, star formation rate, and environment in the SDSS, zCOSMOS, and other deep surveys. We take a purely empirical approach in identifying those features of galaxy evolution that are demanded by the data and then explore the analytic consequences of these. We show that the differential effects of mass and environment are completely separable to z ~ 1, leading to the idea of two distinct processes of "mass quenching" and "environment quenching." The effect of environment quenching, at fixed over-density, evidently does not change with epoch to z ~ 1 in zCOSMOS, suggesting that the environment quenching occurs as large-scale structure develops in the universe, probably through the cessation of star formation in 30%-70% of satellite galaxies. In contrast, mass quenching appears to be a more dynamic process, governed by a quenching rate. We show that the observed constancy of the Schechter M* and α s for star-forming galaxies demands that the quenching of galaxies around and above M* must follow a rate that is statistically proportional to their star formation rates (or closely mimic such a dependence). We then postulate that this simple mass-quenching law in fact holds over a much broader range of stellar mass (2 dex) and cosmic time. We show that the combination of these two quenching processes, plus some additional quenching due to merging naturally produces (1) a quasi-static single Schechter mass function for star-forming galaxies with an exponential cutoff at a value M* that is set uniquely by the constant of proportionality between the star formation and mass quenching rates and (2) a double Schechter function for passive galaxies with two components. The dominant component (at high masses) is produced by mass quenching and has exactly the same M* as the star-forming galaxies but a faint end slope that differs by Δα s ~ 1. The other component is produced by environment effects and has the same M* and α s as the star-forming galaxies but an amplitude that is strongly dependent on environment. Subsequent merging of quenched galaxies will modify these predictions somewhat in the denser environments, mildly increasing M* and making α s slightly more negative. All of these detailed quantitative inter-relationships between the Schechter parameters of the star-forming and passive galaxies, across a broad range of environments, are indeed seen to high accuracy in the SDSS, lending strong support to our simple empirically based model. We find that the amount of post-quenching "dry merging" that could have occurred is quite constrained. Our model gives a prediction for the mass function of the population of transitory objects that are in the process of being quenched. Our simple empirical laws for the cessation of star formation in galaxies also naturally produce the "anti-hierarchical" run of mean age with mass for passive galaxies, as well as the qualitative variation of formation timescale indicated by the relative α-element abundances.

Aims. We present and release photometric redshifts for a uniquely large and deep sample of 522286 objects with i AB ≤ 25 in the Canada-France Hawaii Telescope Legacy Survey (CFHTLS) "Deep Survey" fields D1, D2, D3, and D4, which cover a total effective area of 3.2 deg 2 . Methods. We use 3241 spectroscopic redshifts with 0 ≤ z ≤ 5 from the VIMOS VLT Deep Survey (VVDS) as a calibration and training set to derive these photometric redshifts. Using the "Le Phare" photometric redshift code, we developed a robust calibration method based on an iterative zero-point refinement combined with a template optimisation procedure and the application of a Bayesian approach. This method removes systematic trends in the photometric redshifts and significantly reduces the fraction of catastrophic errors (by a factor of 2), a significant improvement over traditional methods. We use our unique spectroscopic sample to present a detailed assessment of the robustness of the photometric redshift sample. Results. For a sample selected at i AB ≤ 24, we reach a redshift accuracy of σ ∆z/(1+z) = 0.029 with η = 3.8% of catastrophic errors (η is defined strictly as those objects with |∆z|/(1 + z) > 0.15). The reliability of our photometric redshifts decreases for faint objects: we find σ ∆z/(1+z) = 0.025, 0.034 and η = 1.9%, 5.5% for samples selected at i AB = 17.5-22.5 and 22.5-24 respectively. We find that the photometric redshifts of starburst galaxies are less reliable: although these galaxies represent only 22% of the spectroscopic sample, they are responsible for 50% of the catastrophic errors. An analysis as a function of redshift demonstrates that our photometric redshifts work best in the redshift range 0.2 ≤ z ≤ 1.5. We find an excellent agreement between the photometric and the VVDS spectroscopic redshift distributions at i AB ≤ 24. Finally, we compare the redshift distributions of i selected galaxies on the four CFHTLS deep fields, showing that cosmic variance is still present on fields of 0.7-0.9 deg 2 . These photometric redshifts are made publicly available at http://terapix.iap.fr (complete ascii catalogues) and http://cencos.oamp.fr/cencos/CFHTLS/ (searchable database interface).Key words. galaxies: distances and redshifts -galaxies: photometry -methods: data analysis Article published by EDP Sciences and available at http://www.edpsciences.org/aa or http://dx

Euclid is a European Space Agency medium-class mission selected for launch in 2020 within the cosmic vision 2015–2025 program. The main goal of Euclid is to understand the origin of the accelerated expansion of the universe. Euclid will explore the expansion history of the universe and the evolution of cosmic structures by measuring shapes and red-shifts of galaxies as well as the distribution of clusters of galaxies over a large fraction of the sky. Although the main driver for Euclid is the nature of dark energy, Euclid science covers a vast range of topics, from cosmology to galaxy evolution to planetary research. In this review we focus on cosmology and fundamental physics, with a strong emphasis on science beyond the current standard models. We discuss five broad topics: dark energy and modified gravity, dark matter, initial conditions, basic assumptions and questions of methodology in the data analysis. This review has been planned and carried out within Euclid’s Theory Working Group and is meant to provide a guide to the scientific themes that will underlie the activity of the group during the preparation of the Euclid mission.

Euclid is a European Space Agency medium-class mission selected for launch in 2019 within the Cosmic Vision 2015–2025 program. The main goal of Euclid is to understand the origin of the accelerated expansion of the universe. Euclid will explore the expansion history of the universe and the evolution of cosmic structures by measuring shapes and red-shifts of galaxies as well as the distribution of clusters of galaxies over a large fraction of the sky.Although the main driver for Euclid is the nature of dark energy, Euclid science covers a vast range of topics, from cosmology to galaxy evolution to planetary research. In this review we focus on cosmology and fundamental physics, with a strong emphasis on science beyond the current standard models. We discuss five broad topics: dark energy and modified gravity, dark matter, initial conditions, basic assumptions and questions of methodology in the data analysis.This review has been planned and carried out within Euclid’s Theory Working Group and is meant to provide a guide to the scientific themes that will underlie the activity of the group during the preparation of the Euclid mission.

Observations of distant supernovae indicate that the Universe is now in a phase of accelerated expansion the physical cause of which is a mystery. Formally, this requires the inclusion of a term acting as a negative pressure in the equations of cosmic expansion, accounting for about 75 per cent of the total energy density in the Universe. The simplest option for this 'dark energy' corresponds to a 'cosmological constant', perhaps related to the quantum vacuum energy. Physically viable alternatives invoke either the presence of a scalar field with an evolving equation of state, or extensions of general relativity involving higher-order curvature terms or extra dimensions. Although they produce similar expansion rates, different models predict measurable differences in the growth rate of large-scale structure with cosmic time. A fingerprint of this growth is provided by coherent galaxy motions, which introduce a radial anisotropy in the clustering pattern reconstructed by galaxy redshift surveys. Here we report a measurement of this effect at a redshift of 0.8. Using a new survey of more than 10,000 faint galaxies, we measure the anisotropy parameter beta = 0.70 +/- 0.26, which corresponds to a growth rate of structure at that time of f = 0.91 +/- 0.36. This is consistent with the standard cosmological-constant model with low matter density and flat geometry, although the error bars are still too large to distinguish among alternative origins for the accelerated expansion. The correct origin could be determined with a further factor-of-ten increase in the sampled volume at similar redshift.

zCOSMOS is a large redshift survey that is being undertaken in the COSMOS field using 600 hours of observation with the VIMOS spectrograph on the 8-m VLT. The survey is designed to characterise the environments of COSMOS galaxies from the 100 kpc scales of galaxy groups up to the 100 Mpc scale of the cosmic web and to produce diagnostic information on galaxies and active galactic nuclei. The zCOSMOS survey consists of two parts: (a) zCOSMOS-bright, a magnitude-limited I-band I AB < 22.5 sample of about 20,000 galaxies with 0.1 < z < 1.2 covering the whole 1.7 deg 2 COSMOS ACS field, for which the survey parameters at z ~ 0.7 are designed to be directly comparable to those of the 2dFGRS at z ~ 0.1; and (b) zCOSMOS-deep, a survey of approximately 10,000 galaxies selected through colourselection criteria to have 1.4 < z < 3.0, within the central 1 deg 2 . This paper describes the survey design and the construction of the target catalogues, and briefly outlines the observational program and the data pipeline. In the first observing season, spectra of 1303 zCOSMOS-bright targets and of 977 zCOSMOS-deep targets have been obtained. These are briefly analysed to demonstrate the characteristics that may be expected from zCOSMOS, and particularly zCOSMOS-bright, when it is finally completed between 2008-2009. The power of combining spectroscopic and photometric redshifts is demonstrated, especially in correctly identifying the emission line in single-line spectra and in determining which of the less reliable spectroscopic redshifts are correct and which are incorrect. These techniques bring the overall success rate in the zCOSMOS-bright so far to almost 90% and to above 97% in the 0.5 < z < 0.8 redshift range. Our zCOSMOS-deep spectra demonstrate the power of our selection techniques to isolate high redshift galaxies at 1.4 < z < 3.0 and of VIMOS to measure their redshifts using ultraviolet absorption lines.

We present spectroscopic redshifts of a large sample of galaxies with I AB < 22.5 in the COSMOS field, measured from spectra of 10,644 objects that have been obtained in the first two years of observations in the zCOSMOSbright redshift survey. These include a statistically complete subset of 10,109 objects. The average accuracy of individual redshifts is 110 km s −1 , independent of redshift. The reliability of individual redshifts is described by a Confidence Class that has been empirically calibrated through repeat spectroscopic observations of over 600 galaxies. There is very good agreement between spectroscopic and photometric redshifts for the most secure Confidence Classes. For the less secure Confidence Classes, there is a good correspondence between the fraction of objects with a consistent photometric redshift and the spectroscopic repeatability, suggesting that the photometric redshifts can be used to indicate which of the less secure spectroscopic redshifts are likely right and which are probably wrong, and to give an indication of the nature of objects for which we failed to determine a redshift. Using this approach, we can construct a spectroscopic sample that is 99% reliable and which is 88% complete in the sample as a whole, and 95% complete in the redshift range 0.5 < z < 0.8. The luminosity and mass completeness levels of the zCOSMOS-bright sample of galaxies is also discussed.

This paper presents the "First Epoch" sample from the VIMOS VLT Deep Survey (VVDS). The VVDS goals, observations, data reduction with the VIPGI pipeline and redshift measurement scheme with KBRED are discussed. Data have been obtained with the VIsible Multi Object Spectrograph (VIMOS) on the ESO-VLT UT3, allowing us to observe 600 slits simultaneously at a spectral resolution R 230. A total of 11 564 objects have been observed in the VVDS-02h and VVDS-CDFS "Deep" fields over a total area of 0.61 deg 2 , selected solely on the basis of apparent magnitude 17.5 ≤ I AB ≤ 24. The VVDS efficiently covers the redshift range 0 < z ≤ 5. It is successfully going through the "redshift desert" 1.5 < z < 2.2, while the range 2.2 < z < 2.7 remains of difficult access because of the VVDS wavelength coverage. A total of 9677 galaxies have a redshift measurement, 836 objects are stars, 90 objects are AGN, and a redshift could not be measured for 961 objects. There are 1065 galaxies with a measured redshift z ≥ 1.4. When considering only the primary spectroscopic targets, the survey reaches a redshift measurement completeness of 78% overall (93% including less reliable flag 1 objects), with a spatial sampling of the population of galaxies of ∼25% and ∼30% in the VVDS-02h and VVDS-CDFS respectively. The redshift accuracy measured from repeated observations with VIMOS and comparison to other surveys is ∼276 km s −1. From this sample we are able to present for the first time the redshift distribution of a magnitude-limited spectroscopic sample down to I AB = 24. The redshift distribution N(z) has a median of z = 0.62, z = 0.65, z = 0.70, and z = 0.76, for magnitudelimited samples with I AB ≤ 22.5, 23.0, 23.5 and 24.0 respectively. A high redshift tail above redshift 2 and up to redshift 5 becomes readily apparent for I AB > 23.5, probing the bright star-forming population of galaxies. This sample provides an unprecedented dataset to study galaxy evolution over ∼90% of the life of the universe.