Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is the cause of Kaposi's sarcoma and body cavity lymphoma. In cell culture, KSHV results in a latent infection, and lytic reactivation is usually induced with the expression of K-Rta or by treatment with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (TPA) and/or n-butyrate. Lytic infection is marked by the activation of the entire viral genomic transcription cascade and the production of infectious virus. KSHV-infected cells express a highly abundant, long, noncoding transcript referred to as polyadenylated nuclear RNA (PAN RNA). PAN RNA interacts with specific demethylases and physically binds to the KSHV genome to mediate activation of viral gene expression. A recombinant BACmid lacking the PAN RNA locus fails to express K-Rta and does not produce virus. We now show that the lack of PAN RNA expression results in the failure of the initiation of the entire KSHV transcription program. In addition to previous findings of an interaction with demethylases, we show that PAN RNA binds to protein components of Polycomb repression complex 2 (PRC2). RNA-Seq analysis using cell lines that express PAN RNA shows that transcription involving the expression of proteins involved in cell cycle, immune response, and inflammation is dysregulated. Expression of PAN RNA in various cell types results in an enhanced growth phenotype, higher cell densities, and increased survival compared to control cells. Also, PAN RNA expression mediates a decrease in the production of inflammatory cytokines. These data support a role for PAN RNA as a major global regulator of viral and cellular gene expression.K aposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is an oncogenic gamma herpesvirus that is the cause of Kaposi's sarcoma (1, 2). KSHV infection in cell culture manifests mainly as a latent infection; however, there is a percentage of spontaneous lytic reactivation. Lytic infection is marked by the production of infectious virus, whereas latency is characterized by the lack of infectious virus production and the expression of a limited number of viral transcripts and proteins. One of the most abundant transcripts present in KSHV-infected cells is a long noncoding RNA, referred to as polyadenylated nuclear RNA (PAN RNA) (3, 4).We previously showed that PAN RNA interacts with cell-and virus-encoded factors and mediates the regulation of immune response gene expression (5, 6). Data from our laboratory and others indicated that PAN RNA is a major regulator of viral gene expression through a mechanism that involves a direct interaction with the viral chromosome (5, 7). PAN RNA interacts with the demethylases UTX and JMJD3 to remove the suppressive H3K23me3 mark within the KSHV viral genome. In a recent study describing the transcriptome of KSHV-infected cell lines, PAN RNA was detected in the absence of lytic-phase induction, suggesting that PAN RNA is expressed during chronic latent infection in cell culture (8). This observation suggests that PAN RNA has the potential to influence viral and cellular gene expressio...

Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) primarily persists as a latent episome in infected cells. During latent infection, only a limited number of viral genes are expressed that help to maintain the viral episome and prevent lytic reactivation. The latent KSHV genome persists as a highly ordered chromatin structure with bivalent chromatin marks at the promoter-regulatory region of the major immediate-early gene promoter. Various stimuli can induce chromatin modifications to an active euchromatic epigenetic mark, leading to the expression of genes required for the transition from the latent to the lytic phase of KSHV life cycle. Enhanced replication and transcription activator (RTA) gene expression triggers a cascade of events, resulting in the modulation of various cellular pathways to support viral DNA synthesis. RTA also binds to the origin of lytic DNA replication to recruit viral, as well as cellular, proteins for the initiation of the lytic DNA replication of KSHV. In this review we will discuss some of the pivotal genetic and epigenetic factors that control KSHV reactivation from the transcriptionally restricted latent program.

Kaposi's sarcoma associated herpesvirus (KSHV) establishes life-long latent infection by persisting as an extra-chromosomal episome in the infected cells and by maintaining its genome in dividing cells. KSHV achieves this by tethering its epigenome to the host chromosome by latency associated nuclear antigen (LANA), which binds in the terminal repeat (TR) region of the viral genome. Sequence analysis of the TR, a GC-rich DNA element, identified several potential Quadruplex G-Rich Sequences (QGRS). Since quadruplexes have the tendency to obstruct DNA replication, we used G-quadruplex stabilizing compounds to examine their effect on latent DNA replication and the persistence of viral episomes. Our results showed that these G-quadruplex stabilizing compounds led to the activation of dormant origins of DNA replication, with preferential bi-directional pausing of replications forks moving out of the TR region, implicating the role of the G-rich TR in the perturbation of episomal DNA replication. Over time, treatment with PhenDC3 showed a loss of viral episomes in the infected cells. Overall, these data show that G-quadruplex stabilizing compounds retard the progression of replication forks leading to a reduction in DNA replication and episomal maintenance. These results suggest a potential role for G-quadruplex stabilizers in the treatment of KSHV-associated diseases.

The MS2 system has been extensively used to visualize single mRNA molecules in live cells and follow their localization and behavior. In their Letter to the Editor recently published, Garcia and Parker suggest that use of the MS2 system may yield erroneous mRNA localization results due to the accumulation of 3 ′ decay products. Here we cite published works and provide new data which demonstrate that this is not a phenomenon general to endogenously expressed MS2-tagged transcripts, and that some of the results obtained in their study could have arisen from artifacts of gene expression.

Kaposi's sarcoma associated herpesvirus (KSHV) or human herpesvirus 8 (HHV8) is a major etiological agent for multiple severe malignancies in immune-compromised patients. KSHV establishes lifetime persistence in the infected individuals and displays two distinct life cycles, generally a prolonged passive latent, and a short productive or lytic cycle. During latent phase, the viral episome is tethered to the host chromosome and replicates once during every cell division. Latency-associated nuclear antigen (LANA) is a predominant multifunctional nuclear protein expressed during latency, which plays a central role in episome tethering, replication and perpetual segregation of the episomes during cell division. LANA binds cooperatively to LANA binding sites (LBS) within the terminal repeat (TR) region of the viral episome as well as to the cellular nucleosomal proteins to tether viral episome to the host chromosome. LANA has been shown to modulate multiple cellular signaling pathways and recruits various cellular proteins such as chromatin modifying enzymes, replication factors, transcription factors, and cellular mitotic framework to maintain a successful latent infection. Although, many other regions within the KSHV genome can initiate replication, KSHV TR is important for latent DNA replication and possible segregation of the replicated episomes. Binding of LANA to LBS favors the recruitment of various replication factors to initiate LANA dependent DNA replication. In this review, we discuss the molecular mechanisms relevant to KSHV genome replication, segregation, and maintenance of latency.